testing-for-sensitive-data-exposure

name	testing-for-sensitive-data-exposure
description	Identifying sensitive data exposure vulnerabilities including API key leakage, PII in responses, insecure storage, and unprotected data transmission during security assessments.
domain	cybersecurity
subdomain	web-application-security
tags	["penetration-testing","data-exposure","pii","owasp","web-security","api-keys","secrets"]
version	1.0
author	mahipal
license	Apache-2.0
nist_ai_rmf	["MEASURE-2.7","MAP-5.1","MANAGE-2.4"]
atlas_techniques	["AML.T0070","AML.T0066","AML.T0082"]
nist_csf	["PR.PS-01","ID.RA-01","PR.DS-10","DE.CM-01"]
mitre_attack	["T1190","T1059.007","T1505.003","T1083"]

Testing for Sensitive Data Exposure

When to Use

• During authorized penetration tests when assessing data protection controls
• When evaluating applications for GDPR, PCI DSS, HIPAA, or other data protection compliance
• For identifying leaked API keys, credentials, tokens, and secrets in application responses
• When testing whether sensitive data is properly encrypted in transit and at rest
• During security assessments of APIs that handle PII, financial data, or health records

Prerequisites

• Authorization: Written penetration testing agreement with data handling scope
• Burp Suite Professional: For intercepting and analyzing responses for sensitive data
• trufflehog: Secret scanning tool (pip install trufflehog)
• gitleaks: Git repository secret scanner (go install github.com/gitleaks/gitleaks/v8@latest)
• curl/httpie: For manual endpoint testing
• Browser DevTools: For examining local storage, session storage, and cached data
• testssl.sh: TLS configuration testing tool

Workflow

Step 1: Scan for Secrets in Client-Side Code

Search JavaScript files, HTML source, and other client-side resources for exposed secrets.

# Download and search JavaScript files for secrets
curl -s "https://target.example.com/" | \
  grep -oP 'src="[^"]*\.js[^"]*"' | \
  grep -oP '"[^"]*"' | tr -d '"' | while read js; do
    echo "=== Scanning: $js ==="
    # Handle relative URLs
    if [[ "$js" == /* ]]; then
      curl -s "https://target.example.com$js"
    else
      curl -s "$js"
    fi | grep -inE \
      "(api[_-]?key|apikey|api[_-]?secret|aws[_-]?access|aws[_-]?secret|private[_-]?key|password|secret|token|auth|credential|AKIA[0-9A-Z]{16})" \
      | head -20
done

# Search for common secret patterns
curl -s "https://target.example.com/static/app.js" | grep -nP \
  "(AIza[0-9A-Za-z-_]{35}|AKIA[0-9A-Z]{16}|sk-[a-zA-Z0-9]{48}|ghp_[a-zA-Z0-9]{36}|xox[bpsa]-[0-9a-zA-Z-]{10,})"

# Check source maps for exposed source code
curl -s "https://target.example.com/static/app.js.map" | head -c 500
# Source maps may contain original source code with embedded secrets

# Search HTML source for exposed data
curl -s "https://target.example.com/" | grep -inE \
  "(api_key|secret|password|token|private_key|database_url|smtp_password)" | head -20

# Check for exposed .env or configuration files
for file in .env .env.local .env.production config.json settings.json \
  .aws/credentials .docker/config.json; do
  status=$(curl -s -o /dev/null -w "%{http_code}" \
    "https://target.example.com/$file")
  if [ "$status" == "200" ]; then
    echo "FOUND: $file ($status)"
  fi
done

Step 2: Analyze API Responses for Data Over-Exposure

Check if API endpoints return more data than necessary.

# Fetch user profile and examine response fields
curl -s -H "Authorization: Bearer $TOKEN" \
  "https://target.example.com/api/users/me" | jq .

# Look for sensitive fields that should not be exposed:
# - password, password_hash, password_salt
# - ssn, social_security_number, national_id
# - credit_card_number, card_cvv, card_expiry
# - api_key, secret_key, access_token, refresh_token
# - internal_id, database_id
# - ip_address, session_id
# - date_of_birth, drivers_license

# Check list endpoints for excessive data
curl -s -H "Authorization: Bearer $TOKEN" \
  "https://target.example.com/api/users" | jq '.[0] | keys'

# Compare public vs authenticated responses
echo "=== Public ==="
curl -s "https://target.example.com/api/users/1" | jq 'keys'
echo "=== Authenticated ==="
curl -s -H "Authorization: Bearer $TOKEN" \
  "https://target.example.com/api/users/1" | jq 'keys'

# Check error responses for information leakage
curl -s -X POST \
  -H "Content-Type: application/json" \
  -d '{"invalid": "data"}' \
  "https://target.example.com/api/users" | jq .
# Look for: stack traces, database queries, internal paths, version info

# Test for PII in search/autocomplete responses
curl -s -H "Authorization: Bearer $TOKEN" \
  "https://target.example.com/api/search?q=john" | jq .
# May return full user records instead of just names

Step 3: Test Data Transmission Security

Verify that sensitive data is encrypted during transmission.

# Check TLS configuration
# Using testssl.sh
./testssl.sh "https://target.example.com"

# Quick TLS checks with curl
curl -s -v "https://target.example.com/" 2>&1 | grep -E "(SSL|TLS|cipher|subject)"

# Check for HTTP (non-HTTPS) endpoints
curl -s -I "http://target.example.com/" | head -5
# Should redirect to HTTPS

# Check for mixed content (HTTP resources on HTTPS pages)
curl -s "https://target.example.com/" | grep -oP "http://[^\"'> ]+" | head -20

# Check if sensitive forms submit over HTTPS
curl -s "https://target.example.com/login" | grep -oP 'action="[^"]*"'
# Form action should use HTTPS

# Check for sensitive data in URL parameters (query string)
# URLs are logged in browser history, server logs, proxy logs, Referer headers
# Look for: /login?username=admin&password=secret
# /api/data?ssn=123-45-6789
# /search?credit_card=4111111111111111

# Check WebSocket encryption
curl -s "https://target.example.com/" | grep -oP "(ws|wss)://[^\"'> ]+"
# ws:// is unencrypted; should only use wss://

Step 4: Examine Browser Storage for Sensitive Data

Check local storage, session storage, cookies, and cached responses.

# Check what cookies are set and their security attributes
curl -s -I "https://target.example.com/login" | grep -i "set-cookie"

# In browser DevTools (Application tab):
# 1. Local Storage: Check for stored tokens, PII, credentials
# 2. Session Storage: Check for temporary sensitive data
# 3. IndexedDB: Check for cached application data
# 4. Cache Storage: Check for cached API responses containing PII
# 5. Cookies: Check for sensitive data in cookie values

# Common insecure storage patterns:
# localStorage.setItem('access_token', 'eyJ...');  // XSS can steal
# localStorage.setItem('user', JSON.stringify({email: '...', ssn: '...'}));
# sessionStorage.setItem('credit_card', '4111...');

# Check for autocomplete on sensitive forms
curl -s "https://target.example.com/login" | \
  grep -oP '<input[^>]*(password|credit|ssn|card)[^>]*>' | \
  grep -v 'autocomplete="off"'
# Password and credit card fields should have autocomplete="off"

# Check Cache-Control headers on sensitive pages
for page in /account/profile /api/users/me /transactions /billing; do
  echo -n "$page: "
  curl -s -I "https://target.example.com$page" \
    -H "Authorization: Bearer $TOKEN" | \
    grep -i "cache-control" | tr -d '\r'
  echo
done
# Sensitive pages should have: Cache-Control: no-store

Step 5: Scan Git Repositories and Source Code for Secrets

Search for accidentally committed secrets in version control.

# Check for exposed .git directory
curl -s "https://target.example.com/.git/config"
curl -s "https://target.example.com/.git/HEAD"

# If .git is exposed, use git-dumper to download
# pip install git-dumper
git-dumper https://target.example.com/.git /tmp/target-repo

# Scan downloaded repository with trufflehog
trufflehog filesystem /tmp/target-repo

# Scan with gitleaks
gitleaks detect --source /tmp/target-repo -v

# If GitHub/GitLab repository is available (authorized scope)
trufflehog github --org target-organization --token $GITHUB_TOKEN
gitleaks detect --source https://github.com/org/repo -v

# Common secrets found in repositories:
# - AWS access keys (AKIA...)
# - Database connection strings
# - API keys (Google, Stripe, Twilio, SendGrid)
# - Private SSH keys
# - JWT signing secrets
# - OAuth client secrets
# - SMTP credentials

# Search for secrets in Docker images
# docker save target-image:latest | tar x -C /tmp/docker-layers
# Search each layer for credentials

Step 6: Test Data Masking and Redaction

Verify that sensitive data is properly masked in the application.

# Check if credit card numbers are fully displayed
curl -s -H "Authorization: Bearer $TOKEN" \
  "https://target.example.com/api/payment-methods" | jq .
# Should show: **** **** **** 4242, not full number

# Check if SSN/national ID is masked
curl -s -H "Authorization: Bearer $TOKEN" \
  "https://target.example.com/api/users/me" | jq '.ssn'
# Should show: ***-**-6789, not full SSN

# Check API responses for password hashes
curl -s -H "Authorization: Bearer $TOKEN" \
  "https://target.example.com/api/users" | jq '.[].password // empty'
# Should return nothing; password hashes should never be in API responses

# Check export/download features for unmasked data
curl -s -H "Authorization: Bearer $TOKEN" \
  "https://target.example.com/api/users/export?format=csv" | head -5
# CSV exports often contain unmasked PII

# Check logging endpoints for sensitive data
curl -s -H "Authorization: Bearer $TOKEN" \
  "https://target.example.com/api/admin/logs" | \
  grep -iE "(password|token|secret|credit_card|ssn)" | head -10
# Logs should not contain sensitive data in plaintext

# Test for sensitive data in error messages
curl -s -X POST \
  -H "Content-Type: application/json" \
  -d '{"email":"[e-mail]"}' \
  "https://target.example.com/api/register"
# Should not reveal: "User with email [e-mail] already exists"
# Should show: "Registration failed" (generic)

Key Concepts

Concept	Description
Sensitive Data Exposure	Unintended disclosure of PII, credentials, financial data, or health records
Data Over-Exposure	API returning more data fields than the client needs
Secret Leakage	API keys, tokens, or credentials exposed in client-side code or logs
Data at Rest	Sensitive data stored in databases, files, or backups without encryption
Data in Transit	Sensitive data transmitted over network without TLS encryption
Data Masking	Replacing sensitive data with redacted values (e.g., showing last 4 digits of credit card)
PII	Personally Identifiable Information - data that can identify an individual
Information Leakage	Excessive error messages, stack traces, or debug information in responses

Tools & Systems

Tool	Purpose
Burp Suite Professional	Response analysis and regex-based sensitive data scanning
trufflehog	Secret detection across git repos, filesystems, and cloud storage
gitleaks	Git repository scanning for hardcoded secrets
testssl.sh	TLS/SSL configuration assessment
git-dumper	Downloading exposed .git directories from web servers
SecretFinder	JavaScript file analysis for exposed API keys and tokens
Retire.js	Detecting JavaScript libraries with known vulnerabilities

Common Scenarios

Scenario 1: API Key in JavaScript Bundle

The application's JavaScript bundle contains a hardcoded Google Maps API key and a Stripe publishable key. The Stripe key has overly broad permissions, allowing the attacker to create charges.

Scenario 2: User API Returns Password Hashes

The /api/users endpoint returns complete user objects including bcrypt password hashes. Attackers can extract hashes and attempt offline cracking.

Scenario 3: PII in Cached API Responses

The user profile API endpoint returns full SSN and credit card numbers without masking. The endpoint does not set Cache-Control: no-store, so responses are cached in the browser and proxy caches.

Scenario 4: Git Repository with Database Credentials

The .git directory is accessible on the production server. Using git-dumper, the attacker downloads the repository history, finding database credentials committed in an early commit that were later "removed" but remain in git history.

Output Format

## Sensitive Data Exposure Assessment Report

**Target**: target.example.com
**Assessment Date**: 2024-01-15
**OWASP Category**: A02:2021 - Cryptographic Failures

### Findings Summary
| Finding | Severity | Data Type |
|---------|----------|-----------|
| API keys in JavaScript source | High | Credentials |
| Password hashes in API response | Critical | Authentication |
| Unmasked SSN in user profile | Critical | PII |
| Credit card number in export | High | Financial |
| .git directory exposed | Critical | Source code + secrets |
| Missing TLS on API endpoint | High | All data in transit |
| Sensitive data in error messages | Medium | Technical info |

### Critical: Exposed Secrets
| Secret Type | Location | Risk |
|-------------|----------|------|
| AWS Access Key (AKIA...) | /static/app.js line 342 | AWS resource access |
| Stripe Secret Key (sk_live_...) | .env (via .git exposure) | Payment processing |
| Database URL with credentials | .git history commit abc123 | Database access |
| JWT Signing Secret | config.json (via .git) | Token forgery |

### Data Over-Exposure in APIs
| Endpoint | Unnecessary Fields Returned |
|----------|-----------------------------|
| GET /api/users | password_hash, internal_id, created_ip |
| GET /api/users/{id} | ssn, credit_card_full, date_of_birth |
| GET /api/orders | customer_phone, customer_address |

### Recommendation
1. Remove all hardcoded secrets from client-side code; use backend proxies
2. Rotate all exposed credentials immediately
3. Remove .git directory from production web root
4. Implement response field filtering; return only required fields
5. Mask sensitive data (SSN, credit card) in all API responses
6. Add Cache-Control: no-store to all sensitive endpoints
7. Enable TLS 1.2+ on all endpoints; redirect HTTP to HTTPS
8. Implement secret scanning in CI/CD pipeline (trufflehog/gitleaks)