general-temporal

name	general-temporal
description	Use when building or debugging standalone Temporal workers in Python outside of Agentex — structuring workflows and activities, enforcing determinism, handling retries and timeouts, managing state across replays, or diagnosing workflow failures. For Temporal-based Agentex agents, use temporal.

Temporal Workflows — Python Patterns

Temporal is a durable execution engine. Every workflow step is recorded as an immutable event; if the worker crashes, Temporal replays history to resume exactly where it left off.

When to Activate

• Structuring a new Temporal workflow and its activities
• Debugging non-determinism errors, replay failures, or signal issues
• Adding retries, timeouts, or error handling to activities
• Managing state across workflow turns without losing it on crash
• Implementing human-in-the-loop or long-running multi-step pipelines
• Writing or wiring a Temporal worker

---

Core Concepts

Event Sourcing / Replay

Temporal records every decision as an immutable event before executing it:

Event 1: WorkflowStarted
Event 2: ActivityScheduled  (fetch_data, url)
Event 3: ActivityCompleted  (fetch_data, url) → "result"
Event 4: SignalReceived      (approve)
Event 5: ActivityScheduled  (process_data, ...)
          ← worker crashes here

On restart, Temporal replays events 1–4. For completed activities it returns the recorded result — no real I/O. Execution resumes at Event 5 for real.

Determinism rule: Workflow code must produce the same decisions on every replay.

• ✅ Call activities for all I/O, random values, current time
• ❌ Never use random, time.time(), datetime.now(), httpx, or file reads in workflow code
• ❌ Never import I/O libraries at module level in workflow files

Workflow vs Activity

	Workflow	Activity
Purpose	Orchestration, decisions, state	Real I/O — HTTP, DB, LLM, file
I/O allowed	❌ Must be deterministic	✅ Unrestricted
Retried by Temporal	Workflow tasks retry on exception	Yes, via RetryPolicy
Current time	workflow.now() only	datetime.now() fine

---

Minimal Workflow

# workflow.py
from datetime import timedelta
from temporalio import workflow
from temporalio.common import RetryPolicy

from activities import fetch_data, process_data  # imported for type reference only


@workflow.defn
class MyWorkflow:

    @workflow.run
    async def run(self, url: str) -> str:
        # All I/O goes through execute_activity — never call directly
        raw = await workflow.execute_activity(
            fetch_data,
            url,
            start_to_close_timeout=timedelta(minutes=2),
            retry_policy=RetryPolicy(maximum_attempts=3),
        )

        result = await workflow.execute_activity(
            process_data,
            raw,
            start_to_close_timeout=timedelta(minutes=5),
        )

        return result

---

Activities

Activities are the only place with real I/O. Keep them focused — one network call or DB operation per activity.

# activities.py
import httpx
from temporalio import activity


@activity.defn
async def fetch_data(url: str) -> str:
    async with httpx.AsyncClient(timeout=30) as client:
        response = await client.get(url)
        response.raise_for_status()   # non-2xx → exception → Temporal retries
    return response.text


@activity.defn
async def process_data(raw: str) -> str:
    # CPU-bound or DB work here
    return raw.strip().upper()

Activity design rules:

• Accept and return JSON-serializable types (str, int, dict, list, Pydantic models)
• Raise exceptions freely — Temporal catches and retries per RetryPolicy
• Make activities idempotent — they may run more than once on retry
• Keep activities short — long-running ones need heartbeats

---

Worker

# run_worker.py
import asyncio
from temporalio.client import Client
from temporalio.worker import Worker

from workflow import MyWorkflow
from activities import fetch_data, process_data


async def main():
    client = await Client.connect("localhost:7233")

    worker = Worker(
        client,
        task_queue="my-task-queue",
        workflows=[MyWorkflow],
        activities=[fetch_data, process_data],
    )

    print("Worker started")
    await worker.run()


if __name__ == "__main__":
    asyncio.run(main())

---

Starting a Workflow

# client.py
import asyncio
from temporalio.client import Client
from workflow import MyWorkflow


async def main():
    client = await Client.connect("localhost:7233")

    # Start and wait for result
    result = await client.execute_workflow(
        MyWorkflow.run,
        "https://example.com/data",
        id="my-workflow-id-001",      # unique per workflow instance
        task_queue="my-task-queue",
    )
    print(result)

    # Start without waiting (fire and forget)
    handle = await client.start_workflow(
        MyWorkflow.run,
        "https://example.com/data",
        id="my-workflow-id-002",
        task_queue="my-task-queue",
    )
    # Later: result = await handle.result()


asyncio.run(main())

---

Retries and Timeouts

from datetime import timedelta
from temporalio.common import RetryPolicy

# Full retry config
result = await workflow.execute_activity(
    fetch_data,
    url,
    # How long one attempt can run
    start_to_close_timeout=timedelta(minutes=2),

    # How long all attempts combined can run
    schedule_to_close_timeout=timedelta(minutes=10),

    retry_policy=RetryPolicy(
        initial_interval=timedelta(seconds=1),   # first retry after 1s
        backoff_coefficient=2.0,                  # doubles each retry
        maximum_interval=timedelta(seconds=30),   # cap at 30s
        maximum_attempts=5,                       # 5 total attempts, then raise
        non_retryable_error_types=["ValueError"], # don't retry these
    ),
)

Timeout	Scope	Use for
start_to_close_timeout	Single attempt	Normal activity duration limit
schedule_to_close_timeout	All attempts	Hard deadline across all retries
schedule_to_start_timeout	Queue wait time	Detect stuck workers

---

Signals and Queries

@workflow.defn
class ApprovalWorkflow:

    def __init__(self):
        self._approved = False
        self._status = "pending"

    @workflow.run
    async def run(self, item_id: str) -> str:
        # Block until approved (or timeout)
        await workflow.wait_condition(
            lambda: self._approved,
            timeout=timedelta(hours=24),   # give up after 24h
        )
        return await workflow.execute_activity(
            process_item, item_id,
            start_to_close_timeout=timedelta(minutes=5),
        )

    @workflow.signal
    async def approve(self) -> None:
        self._approved = True
        self._status = "approved"

    @workflow.signal
    async def reject(self, reason: str) -> None:
        self._status = f"rejected: {reason}"
        raise Exception(f"Rejected: {reason}")

    @workflow.query
    def status(self) -> str:
        return self._status


# Send a signal from a client
handle = client.get_workflow_handle("approval-workflow-id")
await handle.signal(ApprovalWorkflow.approve)

# Query current state without interrupting
status = await handle.query(ApprovalWorkflow.status)

---

State Management

Workflows are stateful by design — instance variables persist across signals and replay.

@workflow.defn
class BatchWorkflow:

    def __init__(self):
        self._results: list[str] = []
        self._errors: list[str] = []

    @workflow.run
    async def run(self, urls: list[str]) -> dict:
        for url in urls:
            try:
                result = await workflow.execute_activity(
                    fetch_data, url,
                    start_to_close_timeout=timedelta(minutes=2),
                    retry_policy=RetryPolicy(maximum_attempts=2),
                )
                self._results.append(result)
            except Exception as e:
                self._errors.append(f"{url}: {e}")

        return {"results": self._results, "errors": self._errors}

For state that must survive worker replacement (long-running workflows across deployments), persist it in an external store (Postgres, Redis) via an activity and reload it on startup.

@workflow.run
async def run(self, workflow_id: str) -> str:
    # Load persisted state at the start of each run
    state = await workflow.execute_activity(
        load_state, workflow_id,
        start_to_close_timeout=timedelta(seconds=10),
    )
    # ... do work, update state via save_state activity ...

---

Long-Running Activities (Heartbeats)

Activities that take longer than start_to_close_timeout must send heartbeats — otherwise Temporal assumes the worker is dead and retries.

@activity.defn
async def process_large_file(file_path: str) -> str:
    lines = open(file_path).readlines()
    results = []

    for i, line in enumerate(lines):
        result = expensive_operation(line)
        results.append(result)

        # Heartbeat every 100 lines — keeps the activity alive
        if i % 100 == 0:
            activity.heartbeat(f"processed {i}/{len(lines)} lines")

    return "\n".join(results)


# In workflow — set heartbeat_timeout shorter than start_to_close_timeout
await workflow.execute_activity(
    process_large_file,
    file_path,
    start_to_close_timeout=timedelta(hours=1),
    heartbeat_timeout=timedelta(seconds=30),   # fail if no heartbeat in 30s
)

---

Child Workflows

from temporalio.workflow import ChildWorkflowHandle

@workflow.defn
class ParentWorkflow:

    @workflow.run
    async def run(self, items: list[str]) -> list[str]:
        # Launch child workflows concurrently
        handles: list[ChildWorkflowHandle] = []
        for item in items:
            handle = await workflow.start_child_workflow(
                ChildWorkflow.run,
                item,
                id=f"child-{item}",
                task_queue="my-task-queue",
            )
            handles.append(handle)

        # Wait for all to complete
        return list(await asyncio.gather(*[h.result() for h in handles]))

---

Testing

# test_workflow.py
import pytest
from temporalio.testing import WorkflowEnvironment
from temporalio.worker import Worker

from workflow import MyWorkflow
from activities import fetch_data, process_data


@pytest.mark.asyncio
async def test_my_workflow():
    async with await WorkflowEnvironment.start_time_skipping() as env:
        async with Worker(
            env.client,
            task_queue="test-queue",
            workflows=[MyWorkflow],
            activities=[fetch_data, process_data],
        ):
            result = await env.client.execute_workflow(
                MyWorkflow.run,
                "https://example.com",
                id="test-workflow-1",
                task_queue="test-queue",
            )
            assert result == "EXPECTED OUTPUT"


# Mock activities for unit testing the workflow logic
from unittest.mock import AsyncMock

@pytest.mark.asyncio
async def test_workflow_with_mocked_activities():
    async with await WorkflowEnvironment.start_time_skipping() as env:
        mock_fetch = AsyncMock(return_value="raw data")
        mock_process = AsyncMock(return_value="processed")

        async with Worker(
            env.client,
            task_queue="test-queue",
            workflows=[MyWorkflow],
            activities=[mock_fetch, mock_process],
        ):
            result = await env.client.execute_workflow(
                MyWorkflow.run, "https://example.com",
                id="test-2", task_queue="test-queue",
            )
            assert result == "processed"

---

Common Errors

Error	Cause	Fix
workflow.NondeterminismError	Workflow code changed after workflows started	Never change the order/type of execute_activity calls; version with workflow.patched()
ActivityError / ApplicationError	Activity raised after exhausting retries	Catch in workflow, notify user, continue or abort
Signal dropped	Workflow already completed when signal arrived	Send signals before the workflow finishes, or use update instead of signal
schedule_to_start_timeout exceeded	No workers polling the task queue	Start a worker on the same task queue
Activity runs twice	Worker crashed after activity completed but before Temporal recorded it	Make activities idempotent

---

Versioning (Safe Code Changes)

# Use workflow.patched() to change workflow logic without breaking running workflows
@workflow.run
async def run(self, url: str) -> str:
    if workflow.patched("use-v2-processor"):
        # New code path — for workflows started after this deploy
        result = await workflow.execute_activity(
            process_data_v2, url,
            start_to_close_timeout=timedelta(minutes=5),
        )
    else:
        # Old code path — for workflows already in flight
        result = await workflow.execute_activity(
            process_data, url,
            start_to_close_timeout=timedelta(minutes=5),
        )
    return result

Once all pre-patch workflows complete, remove the else branch and the patched() call.

---

Red Flags

• I/O directly in workflow code — httpx, database queries, or open() calls in a workflow function break determinism; on replay the call fires again and may return a different result, causing NondeterminismError; all I/O must live in activities
• random, time.time(), or datetime.now() in a workflow — these return different values on every replay; use workflow.now() for timestamps and route all randomness through activity return values
• Activities that are not idempotent — Temporal may run an activity more than once (crash between execution and recording); an activity that charges a card or sends an email twice on retry is dangerous; use idempotency keys or check-before-act patterns
• Missing start_to_close_timeout — omitting a timeout lets a hung activity block the workflow forever; always set both start_to_close_timeout and a RetryPolicy
• Long-running activities without heartbeats — Temporal assumes a silent activity is dead after heartbeat_timeout; any activity that runs longer than a few minutes must call activity.heartbeat() periodically
• Changing activity call order after workflows are in flight — adding, removing, or reordering execute_activity calls in a running workflow causes NondeterminismError on replay; use workflow.patched() to safely introduce new code paths
• Using asyncio.create_task inside a workflow — spawning raw tasks in workflow code bypasses Temporal's scheduler and breaks determinism; use child workflows or signals for concurrent branching

Checklist

• All HTTP, DB, and I/O calls are in activities — zero I/O in workflow functions
• No random, time.time(), datetime.now(), or I/O imports at module level in workflow files
• Every execute_activity call has start_to_close_timeout and RetryPolicy
• Activities are idempotent — safe to run more than once
• Long-running activities call activity.heartbeat() and have heartbeat_timeout set
• workflow.execute_activity wrapped in try/except to handle exhausted retries gracefully
• Workflow ID is unique and deterministic per business entity (e.g. f"order-{order_id}")
• Code changes to running workflows use workflow.patched() for safe versioning
• Tests use WorkflowEnvironment.start_time_skipping() to run timers instantly
• Worker registers all activity functions and workflow classes on the correct task queue