cloudflare-kv

name	cloudflare-kv
description	Complete knowledge domain for Cloudflare Workers KV - global, low-latency key-value storage on Cloudflare's edge network. Use when: creating KV namespaces, storing configuration data, caching API responses, managing user preferences, implementing TTL expiration, handling KV metadata, or encountering "KV_ERROR", "429 too many requests", "kv rate limit", cacheTtl errors, or eventual consistency issues. Keywords: kv storage, cloudflare kv, workers kv, kv namespace, kv bindings, kv cache, kv ttl, kv metadata, kv list, kv pagination, cache optimization, edge caching, KV_ERROR, 429 too many requests, kv rate limit, eventually consistent, wrangler kv, kv operations, key value storage
license	MIT

Cloudflare Workers KV

Status: Production Ready ✅ Last Updated: 2025-10-21 Dependencies: cloudflare-worker-base (for Worker setup) Latest Versions: wrangler@4.43.0, @cloudflare/workers-types@4.20251014.0

---

Quick Start (5 Minutes)

1. Create KV Namespace

# Create a new KV namespace
npx wrangler kv namespace create MY_NAMESPACE

# Output includes namespace_id - save this!
# ✅ Success!
# Add the following to your wrangler.toml or wrangler.jsonc:
#
# [[kv_namespaces]]
# binding = "MY_NAMESPACE"
# id = "<UUID>"

For development (preview) namespace:

npx wrangler kv namespace create MY_NAMESPACE --preview

# Output:
# [[kv_namespaces]]
# binding = "MY_NAMESPACE"
# preview_id = "<UUID>"

2. Configure Bindings

Add to your wrangler.jsonc:

{
  "name": "my-worker",
  "main": "src/index.ts",
  "compatibility_date": "2025-10-11",
  "kv_namespaces": [
    {
      "binding": "MY_NAMESPACE",          // Available as env.MY_NAMESPACE
      "id": "<production-uuid>",           // Production namespace ID
      "preview_id": "<preview-uuid>"       // Local dev namespace ID (optional)
    }
  ]
}

Or use wrangler.toml:

name = "my-worker"
main = "src/index.ts"
compatibility_date = "2025-10-11"

[[kv_namespaces]]
binding = "MY_NAMESPACE"
id = "<production-uuid>"
preview_id = "<preview-uuid>"  # optional

CRITICAL:

• binding is how you access the namespace in code (env.MY_NAMESPACE)
• id is the production namespace UUID
• preview_id is for local dev (optional, separate namespace)
• Never commit real namespace IDs to public repos - use environment variables or secrets

3. Write Your First Key-Value Pair

import { Hono } from 'hono';

type Bindings = {
  MY_NAMESPACE: KVNamespace;
};

const app = new Hono<{ Bindings: Bindings }>();

app.post('/set/:key', async (c) => {
  const key = c.req.param('key');
  const value = await c.req.text();

  // Simple write
  await c.env.MY_NAMESPACE.put(key, value);

  return c.json({ success: true, key });
});

app.get('/get/:key', async (c) => {
  const key = c.req.param('key');
  const value = await c.env.MY_NAMESPACE.get(key);

  if (!value) {
    return c.json({ error: 'Not found' }, 404);
  }

  return c.json({ value });
});

export default app;

4. Test Locally

# Start local development server
npm run dev

# In another terminal, test the endpoints
curl -X POST http://localhost:8787/set/test -d "Hello KV"
# {"success":true,"key":"test"}

curl http://localhost:8787/get/test
# {"value":"Hello KV"}

---

Complete Workers KV API

1. Read Operations

get() - Read Single Key

// Get as string (default)
const value: string | null = await env.MY_KV.get('my-key');

// Get as JSON
const data: MyType | null = await env.MY_KV.get('my-key', { type: 'json' });

// Get as ArrayBuffer
const buffer: ArrayBuffer | null = await env.MY_KV.get('my-key', { type: 'arrayBuffer' });

// Get as ReadableStream
const stream: ReadableStream | null = await env.MY_KV.get('my-key', { type: 'stream' });

// Get with cache optimization
const value = await env.MY_KV.get('my-key', {
  type: 'text',
  cacheTtl: 300, // Cache at edge for 5 minutes (minimum 60 seconds)
});

get() - Read Multiple Keys (Bulk)

// Read multiple keys at once (counts as 1 operation)
const keys = ['key1', 'key2', 'key3'];
const values: Map<string, string | null> = await env.MY_KV.get(keys);

// Access values
const value1 = values.get('key1'); // string | null
const value2 = values.get('key2'); // string | null

// Convert to object
const obj = Object.fromEntries(values);

getWithMetadata() - Read with Metadata

// Get single key with metadata
const { value, metadata } = await env.MY_KV.getWithMetadata('my-key');

// value: string | null
// metadata: any | null

// Get as JSON with metadata
const { value, metadata } = await env.MY_KV.getWithMetadata<MyType>('my-key', {
  type: 'json',
  cacheTtl: 300,
});

// Get multiple keys with metadata
const keys = ['key1', 'key2'];
const result: Map<string, { value: string | null, metadata: any | null }> =
  await env.MY_KV.getWithMetadata(keys);

for (const [key, data] of result) {
  console.log(key, data.value, data.metadata);
}

Type Options:

• text (default) - Returns string
• json - Parses JSON, returns object
• arrayBuffer - Returns ArrayBuffer
• stream - Returns ReadableStream

Note: Bulk read with get(keys[]) only supports text and json types. For arrayBuffer or stream, use individual get() calls with Promise.all().

---

2. Write Operations

put() - Write Key-Value Pair

// Simple write
await env.MY_KV.put('key', 'value');

// Write JSON
await env.MY_KV.put('user:123', JSON.stringify({ name: 'John', age: 30 }));

// Write with expiration (TTL)
await env.MY_KV.put('session:abc', sessionData, {
  expirationTtl: 3600, // Expire in 1 hour (minimum 60 seconds)
});

// Write with absolute expiration
const expirationTime = Math.floor(Date.now() / 1000) + 86400; // 24 hours from now
await env.MY_KV.put('token', tokenValue, {
  expiration: expirationTime, // Seconds since epoch
});

// Write with metadata
await env.MY_KV.put('config:theme', 'dark', {
  metadata: {
    updatedAt: Date.now(),
    updatedBy: 'admin',
    version: 2
  },
});

// Write with everything
await env.MY_KV.put('feature:flags', JSON.stringify(flags), {
  expirationTtl: 600,
  metadata: { source: 'api', timestamp: Date.now() },
});

CRITICAL Limits:

• Key size: Maximum 512 bytes
• Value size: Maximum 25 MiB
• Metadata size: Maximum 1024 bytes (JSON serialized)
• Write rate: Maximum 1 write per second per key
• Expiration minimum: 60 seconds (both TTL and absolute)

Rate Limit Handling:

async function putWithRetry(
  kv: KVNamespace,
  key: string,
  value: string,
  options?: KVPutOptions
) {
  let attempts = 0;
  const maxAttempts = 5;
  let delay = 1000; // Start with 1 second

  while (attempts < maxAttempts) {
    try {
      await kv.put(key, value, options);
      return; // Success
    } catch (error) {
      const message = (error as Error).message;

      if (message.includes('429') || message.includes('Too Many Requests')) {
        attempts++;
        if (attempts >= maxAttempts) {
          throw new Error('Max retry attempts reached');
        }

        console.warn(`Attempt ${attempts} failed. Retrying in ${delay}ms...`);
        await new Promise(resolve => setTimeout(resolve, delay));

        // Exponential backoff
        delay *= 2;
      } else {
        throw error; // Different error, rethrow
      }
    }
  }
}

---

3. List Operations

list() - List Keys

// List all keys (up to 1000)
const result = await env.MY_KV.list();

console.log(result.keys);         // Array of key objects
console.log(result.list_complete); // boolean - false if more keys exist
console.log(result.cursor);        // string - for pagination

// List with prefix filter
const result = await env.MY_KV.list({
  prefix: 'user:', // Only keys starting with 'user:'
});

// List with limit
const result = await env.MY_KV.list({
  limit: 100, // Maximum 1000 (default 1000)
});

// Pagination with cursor
let cursor: string | undefined;
let allKeys: any[] = [];

do {
  const result = await env.MY_KV.list({ cursor });
  allKeys = allKeys.concat(result.keys);
  cursor = result.list_complete ? undefined : result.cursor;
} while (cursor);

// Combined: prefix + pagination
let cursor: string | undefined;
const userKeys: any[] = [];

do {
  const result = await env.MY_KV.list({
    prefix: 'user:',
    cursor,
  });

  userKeys.push(...result.keys);
  cursor = result.list_complete ? undefined : result.cursor;
} while (cursor);

List Response Format:

{
  keys: [
    {
      name: "user:123",
      expiration: 1234567890,  // Optional: seconds since epoch
      metadata: { ... }         // Optional: metadata object
    },
    // ... more keys
  ],
  list_complete: false,  // true if no more keys
  cursor: "6Ck1la0VxJ0djhidm1MdX2FyD"  // Use for next page
}

IMPORTANT:

• Keys are always returned in lexicographically sorted order (UTF-8)
• Always check list_complete, not keys.length === 0
• Empty keys array doesn't mean no more data (expired/deleted keys create "tombstones")
• When paginating with prefix, you must pass the same prefix with each cursor request

---

4. Delete Operations

delete() - Delete Key

// Delete single key
await env.MY_KV.delete('my-key');

// Delete always succeeds, even if key doesn't exist
await env.MY_KV.delete('non-existent-key'); // No error

// Bulk delete pattern (in Worker)
const keysToDelete = ['key1', 'key2', 'key3', ...];

// Delete in parallel (careful of Worker subrequest limits)
await Promise.all(
  keysToDelete.map(key => env.MY_KV.delete(key))
);

// For more than 1000 keys, use REST API bulk delete (via wrangler or API)

Bulk Delete via REST API:

The Workers binding doesn't support bulk delete, but you can use the REST API (via wrangler or direct API calls):

# Using wrangler CLI
npx wrangler kv bulk delete --namespace-id=<UUID> keys.json

# keys.json format:
# ["key1", "key2", "key3"]

REST API Limit: Up to 10,000 keys per bulk delete request.

---

Advanced Patterns & Best Practices

1. Caching Pattern with CacheTtl

async function getCachedData(
  kv: KVNamespace,
  cacheKey: string,
  fetchFn: () => Promise<any>,
  cacheTtl: number = 300
) {
  // Try to get from KV cache
  const cached = await kv.get(cacheKey, {
    type: 'json',
    cacheTtl, // Cache at edge for faster subsequent reads
  });

  if (cached) {
    return cached;
  }

  // Cache miss - fetch fresh data
  const data = await fetchFn();

  // Store in KV with expiration
  await kv.put(cacheKey, JSON.stringify(data), {
    expirationTtl: cacheTtl * 2, // Store longer than cache
  });

  return data;
}

// Usage
app.get('/api/data/:id', async (c) => {
  const id = c.req.param('id');

  const data = await getCachedData(
    c.env.CACHE,
    `data:${id}`,
    () => fetchFromDatabase(id),
    300 // 5 minutes
  );

  return c.json(data);
});

CacheTtl Guidelines:

• Minimum: 60 seconds
• Default: 60 seconds
• Maximum: Number.MAX_SAFE_INTEGER
• Use case: Frequently read, infrequently updated data
• Trade-off: Higher cacheTtl = faster reads but slower update propagation

---

2. Metadata Optimization Pattern

Store small values in metadata to avoid separate get() calls:

// ❌ Bad: Two operations
await env.MY_KV.put('user:123', 'active');
const status = await env.MY_KV.get('user:123');

// ✅ Good: Store in metadata with empty value
await env.MY_KV.put('user:123', '', {
  metadata: {
    status: 'active',
    lastSeen: Date.now(),
    plan: 'pro'
  },
});

// List returns metadata automatically
const users = await env.MY_KV.list({ prefix: 'user:' });

users.keys.forEach(({ name, metadata }) => {
  console.log(name, metadata.status, metadata.plan);
  // No additional get() calls needed!
});

When to Use:

• ✅ Values fit in 1024 bytes
• ✅ You frequently use list() operations
• ✅ You need to filter/process many keys
• ❌ Don't use for large values (use regular value storage)

---

3. Key Coalescing for Performance

Combine related cold keys with hot keys:

// ❌ Bad: Many individual keys (some hot, some cold)
await kv.put('user:123:name', 'John');
await kv.put('user:123:email', '[e-mail]');
await kv.put('user:123:age', '30');

// ✅ Good: Coalesce into single hot key
await kv.put('user:123', JSON.stringify({
  name: 'John',
  email: '[e-mail]',
  age: 30,
}));

// Single read gets everything
const user = await kv.get<User>('user:123', { type: 'json' });

Advantages:

• Cold keys benefit from hot key caching
• Fewer operations = better performance
• Single cache entry instead of multiple

Disadvantages:

• Can't update individual fields easily (requires read-modify-write)
• Large coalesced values may hit memory limits
• Concurrent updates need locking mechanism

---

4. Pagination Helper

async function* paginateKV(
  kv: KVNamespace,
  options: { prefix?: string; limit?: number } = {}
) {
  let cursor: string | undefined;

  do {
    const result = await kv.list({
      prefix: options.prefix,
      limit: options.limit || 1000,
      cursor,
    });

    yield result.keys;

    cursor = result.list_complete ? undefined : result.cursor;
  } while (cursor);
}

// Usage
app.get('/all-users', async (c) => {
  const allUsers = [];

  for await (const keys of paginateKV(c.env.MY_KV, { prefix: 'user:' })) {
    // Process batch
    allUsers.push(...keys.map(k => k.name));
  }

  return c.json({ users: allUsers, count: allUsers.length });
});

---

5. Feature Flags Pattern

interface FeatureFlags {
  darkMode: boolean;
  newDashboard: boolean;
  betaFeatures: boolean;
}

async function getFeatureFlags(
  kv: KVNamespace,
  userId?: string
): Promise<FeatureFlags> {
  // Try user-specific flags first
  if (userId) {
    const userFlags = await kv.get<FeatureFlags>(`flags:user:${userId}`, {
      type: 'json',
      cacheTtl: 300,
    });
    if (userFlags) return userFlags;
  }

  // Fallback to global flags
  const globalFlags = await kv.get<FeatureFlags>('flags:global', {
    type: 'json',
    cacheTtl: 300,
  });

  return globalFlags || {
    darkMode: false,
    newDashboard: false,
    betaFeatures: false,
  };
}

// Update global flags
app.post('/admin/flags', async (c) => {
  const flags = await c.req.json<FeatureFlags>();

  await c.env.CONFIG.put('flags:global', JSON.stringify(flags), {
    metadata: { updatedAt: Date.now() },
  });

  return c.json({ success: true });
});

---

Understanding Eventual Consistency

KV is eventually consistent across Cloudflare's global network:

How It Works:

1. Writes are immediately visible in the same location
2. Other locations see the update within ~60 seconds (or your cacheTtl value)
3. Cached reads may return stale data during propagation

Implications:

// In Tokyo data center:
await env.MY_KV.put('counter', '1');
const value1 = await env.MY_KV.get('counter'); // "1" ✅

// In London data center (within 60 seconds):
const value2 = await env.MY_KV.get('counter'); // Might still be old value ⚠️

// After 60+ seconds:
const value3 = await env.MY_KV.get('counter'); // "1" ✅

Best Practices:

✅ Use KV for:

• Read-heavy workloads (100:1 read/write ratio)
• Data that doesn't require immediate global consistency
• Configuration, feature flags, caching
• User preferences, session data

❌ Don't use KV for:

• Financial transactions requiring atomic operations
• Data requiring strong consistency
• High-frequency writes to same key (>1/second)
• Critical data where stale reads are unacceptable

If you need strong consistency, use Durable Objects.

---

Wrangler CLI Operations

Create Namespace

# Production namespace
npx wrangler kv namespace create MY_NAMESPACE

# Preview/development namespace
npx wrangler kv namespace create MY_NAMESPACE --preview

List Namespaces

npx wrangler kv namespace list

Write Key-Value Pairs

# Write single key
npx wrangler kv key put --binding=MY_NAMESPACE "my-key" "my-value"

# Write from file
npx wrangler kv key put --binding=MY_NAMESPACE "config" --path=config.json

# Write with metadata
npx wrangler kv key put --binding=MY_NAMESPACE "key" "value" --metadata='{"version":1}'

# Write with TTL (seconds)
npx wrangler kv key put --binding=MY_NAMESPACE "session" "data" --ttl=3600

Read Key-Value Pairs

# Read single key
npx wrangler kv key get --binding=MY_NAMESPACE "my-key"

# Read to file
npx wrangler kv key get --binding=MY_NAMESPACE "image" --path=image.png

List Keys

# List all keys
npx wrangler kv key list --binding=MY_NAMESPACE

# List with prefix
npx wrangler kv key list --binding=MY_NAMESPACE --prefix="user:"

# Pretty print
npx wrangler kv key list --binding=MY_NAMESPACE | jq "."

Delete Keys

# Delete single key
npx wrangler kv key delete --binding=MY_NAMESPACE "my-key"

Bulk Operations

# Bulk write (up to 10,000 keys)
npx wrangler kv bulk put --binding=MY_NAMESPACE data.json

# data.json format:
# [
#   {"key": "key1", "value": "value1"},
#   {"key": "key2", "value": "value2", "expiration_ttl": 3600}
# ]

# Bulk delete (up to 10,000 keys)
npx wrangler kv bulk delete --binding=MY_NAMESPACE keys.json

# keys.json format:
# ["key1", "key2", "key3"]

---

Limits & Quotas

Feature	Free Plan	Paid Plan
Reads per day	100,000	Unlimited
Writes per day (different keys)	1,000	Unlimited
Writes per key per second	1	1
Operations per Worker invocation	1,000	1,000
Namespaces per account	1,000	1,000
Storage per account	1 GB	Unlimited
Storage per namespace	1 GB	Unlimited
Keys per namespace	Unlimited	Unlimited
Key size	512 bytes	512 bytes
Metadata size	1024 bytes	1024 bytes
Value size	25 MiB	25 MiB
Minimum cacheTtl	60 seconds	60 seconds
Maximum cacheTtl	Number.MAX_SAFE_INTEGER	Number.MAX_SAFE_INTEGER

Important Notes:

• 1 write/second per key: Concurrent writes to the same key cause 429 errors
• 1000 operations per invocation: Bulk operations count as 1 operation
• Bulk reads (reading multiple keys) count as a single operation
• REST API is subject to Cloudflare API rate limits

---

TypeScript Types

// KVNamespace type is provided by @cloudflare/workers-types
interface KVNamespace {
  get(key: string, options?: Partial<KVGetOptions<undefined>>): Promise<string | null>;
  get(key: string, type: "text"): Promise<string | null>;
  get<ExpectedValue = unknown>(key: string, type: "json"): Promise<ExpectedValue | null>;
  get(key: string, type: "arrayBuffer"): Promise<ArrayBuffer | null>;
  get(key: string, type: "stream"): Promise<ReadableStream | null>;
  get(key: string, options?: KVGetOptions<"text">): Promise<string | null>;
  get<ExpectedValue = unknown>(key: string, options?: KVGetOptions<"json">): Promise<ExpectedValue | null>;
  get(key: string, options?: KVGetOptions<"arrayBuffer">): Promise<ArrayBuffer | null>;
  get(key: string, options?: KVGetOptions<"stream">): Promise<ReadableStream | null>;
  get(keys: string[]): Promise<Map<string, string | null>>;
  get(keys: string[], type: "text"): Promise<Map<string, string | null>>;
  get<ExpectedValue = unknown>(keys: string[], type: "json"): Promise<Map<string, ExpectedValue | null>>;

  getWithMetadata<Metadata = unknown>(key: string, options?: Partial<KVGetOptions<undefined>>): Promise<KVGetWithMetadataResult<string, Metadata>>;
  getWithMetadata<Metadata = unknown>(key: string, type: "text"): Promise<KVGetWithMetadataResult<string, Metadata>>;
  getWithMetadata<ExpectedValue = unknown, Metadata = unknown>(key: string, type: "json"): Promise<KVGetWithMetadataResult<ExpectedValue, Metadata>>;
  getWithMetadata<Metadata = unknown>(key: string, options?: KVGetOptions<"text">): Promise<KVGetWithMetadataResult<string, Metadata>>;
  getWithMetadata<ExpectedValue = unknown, Metadata = unknown>(key: string, options?: KVGetOptions<"json">): Promise<KVGetWithMetadataResult<ExpectedValue, Metadata>>;
  getWithMetadata<Metadata = unknown>(keys: string[]): Promise<Map<string, KVGetWithMetadataResult<string, Metadata>>>;
  getWithMetadata<Metadata = unknown>(keys: string[], type: "text"): Promise<Map<string, KVGetWithMetadataResult<string, Metadata>>>;
  getWithMetadata<ExpectedValue = unknown, Metadata = unknown>(keys: string[], type: "json"): Promise<Map<string, KVGetWithMetadataResult<ExpectedValue, Metadata>>>;

  put(key: string, value: string | ArrayBuffer | ArrayBufferView | ReadableStream, options?: KVPutOptions): Promise<void>;

  delete(key: string): Promise<void>;

  list<Metadata = unknown>(options?: KVListOptions): Promise<KVListResult<Metadata>>;
}

interface KVGetOptions<Type> {
  type: Type;
  cacheTtl?: number;
}

interface KVGetWithMetadataResult<Value, Metadata> {
  value: Value | null;
  metadata: Metadata | null;
}

interface KVPutOptions {
  expiration?: number;        // Seconds since epoch
  expirationTtl?: number;     // Seconds from now (minimum 60)
  metadata?: any;             // Serializable to JSON, max 1024 bytes
}

interface KVListOptions {
  prefix?: string;
  limit?: number;   // Default 1000, max 1000
  cursor?: string;
}

interface KVListResult<Metadata = unknown> {
  keys: {
    name: string;
    expiration?: number;
    metadata?: Metadata;
  }[];
  list_complete: boolean;
  cursor?: string;
}

---

Error Handling

Common Errors

1. Rate Limit (429 Too Many Requests)

try {
  await env.MY_KV.put('counter', '1');
  await env.MY_KV.put('counter', '2'); // Too fast! < 1 second
} catch (error) {
  // Error: KV PUT failed: 429 Too Many Requests
  console.error(error);
}

// Solution: Use retry with backoff (see putWithRetry example above)

2. Value Too Large

const largeValue = 'x'.repeat(26 * 1024 * 1024); // > 25 MiB

try {
  await env.MY_KV.put('large', largeValue);
} catch (error) {
  // Error: Value too large
  console.error(error);
}

// Solution: Check size before writing
if (value.length > 25 * 1024 * 1024) {
  throw new Error('Value exceeds 25 MiB limit');
}

3. Metadata Too Large

const metadata = { data: 'x'.repeat(2000) }; // > 1024 bytes serialized

try {
  await env.MY_KV.put('key', 'value', { metadata });
} catch (error) {
  // Error: Metadata too large
  console.error(error);
}

// Solution: Validate metadata size
const serialized = JSON.stringify(metadata);
if (serialized.length > 1024) {
  throw new Error('Metadata exceeds 1024 byte limit');
}

4. Invalid CacheTtl

// ❌ Too low
await env.MY_KV.get('key', { cacheTtl: 30 }); // Error: minimum is 60

// ✅ Correct
await env.MY_KV.get('key', { cacheTtl: 60 });

---

Always Do ✅

1. Use bulk operations when reading multiple keys (counts as 1 operation)
2. Set cacheTtl for frequently-read, infrequently-updated data
3. Store small values in metadata when using list() frequently
4. Check list_complete when paginating, not keys.length === 0
5. Use retry logic with exponential backoff for write operations
6. Validate sizes before writing (key 512 bytes, value 25 MiB, metadata 1 KB)
7. Use preview namespaces for local development
8. Set appropriate TTLs for cache invalidation (minimum 60 seconds)
9. Coalesce related keys for better caching performance
10. Use KV for read-heavy workloads (100:1 read/write ratio ideal)

---

Never Do ❌

1. Never write to same key >1/second - Causes 429 rate limit errors
2. Never assume immediate global consistency - Takes ~60 seconds to propagate
3. Never use KV for atomic operations - Use Durable Objects instead
4. Never set cacheTtl <60 seconds - Will fail
5. Never commit namespace IDs to public repos - Use environment variables
6. Never exceed 1000 operations per invocation - Use bulk operations
7. Never rely on write order - Eventual consistency means no guarantees
8. Never store sensitive data without encryption - KV is not encrypted at rest by default
9. Never use KV for high-frequency writes - Not designed for write-heavy workloads
10. Never forget to handle null values - get() returns null if key doesn't exist

---

Troubleshooting

Issue: "429 Too Many Requests" on writes

Cause: Writing to same key more than once per second

Solution:

// ❌ Bad
for (let i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
  await kv.put('counter', String(i)); // Rate limit!
}

// ✅ Good - consolidate writes
const finalValue = '9';
await kv.put('counter', finalValue);

// ✅ Good - use retry with backoff
await putWithRetry(kv, 'counter', String(i));

---

Issue: Stale reads after write

Cause: Eventual consistency - writes take up to 60 seconds to propagate globally

Solution:

// Accept that reads may be stale for up to 60 seconds
// OR use Durable Objects for strong consistency
// OR implement application-level cache invalidation

---

Issue: "Operations limit exceeded"

Cause: More than 1000 KV operations in single Worker invocation

Solution:

// ❌ Bad - 5000 operations
const keys = Array.from({ length: 5000 }, (_, i) => `key${i}`);
for (const key of keys) {
  await kv.get(key); // Exceeds 1000 limit
}

// ✅ Good - 1 operation (bulk read)
const values = await kv.get(keys);

---

Issue: List returns empty but cursor exists

Cause: Recently deleted/expired keys create "tombstones" in the list

Solution:

// Always check list_complete, not keys.length
let cursor: string | undefined;

do {
  const result = await kv.list({ cursor });

  // Process keys even if empty
  processKeys(result.keys);

  // CORRECT: Check list_complete
  cursor = result.list_complete ? undefined : result.cursor;
} while (cursor);

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Production Checklist

Before deploying to production:

• Environment-specific namespaces configured (id vs preview_id)
• Namespace IDs stored in environment variables (not hardcoded)
• Rate limit retry logic implemented for writes
• Appropriate cacheTtl values set for reads
• Metadata sizes validated (<1024 bytes)
• Value sizes validated (<25 MiB)
• Key sizes validated (<512 bytes)
• Bulk operations used where possible
• Pagination implemented correctly for list()
• Error handling for null values
• Monitoring/alerting for rate limits
• Documentation for eventual consistency behavior

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Related Documentation

• Cloudflare KV Docs
• KV API Reference
• KV Limits
• How KV Works
• Wrangler KV Commands

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Last Updated: 2025-10-21 Version: 1.0.0 Maintainer: Jeremy Dawes | [e-mail]