Before using code patterns, verify installed versions match. If versions differ:
Python: pip show <package> then help(module.function) to check signatures
CLI: <tool> --version then <tool> --help to confirm flags
If code throws ImportError, AttributeError, or TypeError, introspect the installed
package and adapt the example to match the actual API rather than retrying.
Splice Variant Prediction
Predict whether a DNA variant alters mRNA splicing. Distinct from "variant pathogenicity" generally: a variant can be a strong splice disruptor without being pathogenic for the gene's standard mechanism, or pathogenic for reasons orthogonal to splicing. Splice prediction asks specifically: does this variant change splice-site usage?
Clinical screening; canonical splice site disruption
Delta score 0-1
Default for ACMG variant classification
Tissue-specific events; deep-intronic with default 50nt window
Pangolin
Tissue-aware predictions
Per-tissue ΔPSI
When disease tissue is known (brain, heart, liver, testis)
Tissue not in 4-tissue training set
MMSplice
Quantitative ΔPSI
Δlogit_psi
Research where calibrated effect-size matters
Atypical events outside cassette-exon model
SpliceTransformer
2024+ benchmark improvements
Tissue-specific ΔPSI
When transformer foundation models outperform CNN on benchmark variant sets
New (2024); limited clinical adoption
TrASPr
Multi-transformer, 2024-2025
Tissue-specific PSI/ΔPSI
Strong on tissue-specific test sets
New; verify before clinical use
SpliceVault
Empirical mis-splicing outcome
Top-N events at the affected splice site
Predicting consequence (skip vs cryptic) of canonical-disrupting variants
Variants not represented in 300K-RNA training
CADD-Splice
Single composite score
Scaled C-score
Clinical pipelines wanting one number
When knowing which sub-component drove the score is needed
Methodology evolves; verify benchmarks (Smith & Kitzman 2023 Genome Biol 24:294; You et al 2024 Nat Commun) and ClinGen SVI splicing recommendations before reporting clinical interpretations. Concordance across SpliceAI + Pangolin + MMSplice is gold-standard evidence; discordance flags need RNA validation.
The ClinGen Sequence Variant Interpretation (SVI) splicing subgroup (Walker 2023 Am J Hum Genet) extended the ACMG/AMP 2015 framework with explicit splice-prediction rules.
Evidence code
Threshold
Notes
PP3 (supporting pathogenic)
SpliceAI delta >= 0.20
ClinGen SVI: apply at supporting weight (not standalone)
BP4 (supporting benign)
SpliceAI delta <= 0.10
ClinGen SVI: apply at supporting weight
PVS1 (very strong null)
Canonical +/-1, +/-2 site disruption with predicted LoF + NMD
Requires gene where LoF is established mechanism (Abou Tayoun 2018 Hum Mutat PVS1 decision tree)
PS3 / BS3 (functional)
RNA evidence (RT-PCR, RNA-seq, minigene)
Supersedes computational evidence
Operational rules: Computational evidence (PP3/BP4) is supporting, not standalone. ClinGen SVI 2023 recommends applying predictive splice PP3/BP4 at supporting weight only; higher SpliceAI cutoffs (0.5, 0.8) increase precision but are the tool's own tiers (Jaganathan 2019), NOT ClinGen-endorsed evidence-strength upgrades — reaching moderate/strong requires functional/RNA evidence (PS3/BS3), not a higher SpliceAI score alone. Splicing variants benefit from concordance across SpliceAI + Pangolin + MMSplice. RNA validation supersedes prediction. Always log SpliceAI version, distance window, and reference transcript. SpliceAI alone is not sufficient for PVS1; canonical site disruption requires gene-level LoF context.
SpliceAI Workflow
Goal: Annotate VCF variants with per-variant delta scores for splice-site change.
Approach: Run spliceai CLI with reference genome and annotation; parse INFO field for delta scores. SpliceAI is human-only (-A grch37 or -A grch38); the model was trained on GENCODE human and does not directly transfer to mouse, fly, or other species. For mouse, retrained variants exist (e.g. mouseSpliceAI); for other species, use Pangolin (4 species: human, mouse, rat, rhesus macaque) or accept that prediction will be unreliable.
-m True masks splice gains at annotated sites and losses at unannotated sites (recommended for clinical use). -s 0.2 outputs all sites with predicted change >= cutoff.
Pangolin output is a VCF with per-tissue predictions across the 4 tissues used at training: brain, heart, liver, testis (Zeng & Li 2022 Genome Biol). The model outputs per-species per-tissue predictions but extrapolates poorly to tissues outside this set. Use the tissue closest to disease-relevant context. For tissues not in the 4-tissue training set, fall back to SpliceAI — Pangolin extrapolates poorly to unseen tissues.
SpliceVault for Empirical Mis-Splicing Outcomes
Goal: Predict the type of mis-splicing (exon skipping vs cryptic site activation) given a canonical-disrupting variant.
Approach: Query SpliceVault's database of empirical mis-splicing events from public RNA-seq.
import requests
# Web API: https://kidsneuro.shinyapps.io/splicevault/# Or use the R/Python package at github.com/kidsneuro-lab/SpliceVault# Example: NM_000546.6:c.673-2A>G (TP53)# Returns top-N most likely mis-splicing events: exon skipping, cryptic 3'ss usage, etc.
SpliceVault (Dawes 2023 Nat Genet) showed that the Top-4 events at any splice site predict variant-associated mis-splicing with ~92% sensitivity overall (96% of exon-skipping and 86% of cryptic-activation events) — a striking regularity that makes consequence prediction tractable. Use SpliceVault when the question is not "will splicing change?" but "what specific aberrant splicing will occur?".
MMSplice for Calibrated ΔPSI
Goal: Predict quantitative ΔPSI (not just probability of disruption) for cassette exons.
Approach: Score variant impact on each splicing region (5'ss, 3'ss, exon, intron-3'/5') and combine.
from mmsplice.vcf_dataloader import SplicingVCFDataloader
from mmsplice import MMSplice, predict_save
dl = SplicingVCFDataloader(
gtf='gencode.v45.basic.gtf',
fasta_file='GRCh38.fa',
vcf_file='input.vcf'
)
model = MMSplice()
predict_save(model, dl, 'mmsplice_predictions.csv', pathogenicity=True)
MMSplice (Cheng 2019 Genome Biol) reports Δlogit_psi per variant. Useful when calibrated effect sizes matter (research) more than probability of disruption (clinical screening). Companion MTSplice (Cheng 2021 Genome Biol) adds tissue-specific Δψ predictions.
HGVS Splicing Nomenclature
Following den Dunnen 2016 Hum Mutat:
Notation
Meaning
c.123+1G>A
+1 of intron downstream of exon ending at cDNA position 123 (canonical 5'ss G)
c.123+5G>A
+5 position of donor (consensus region)
c.124-1G>A
-1 of acceptor (canonical AG)
c.124-3T>G
-3 of acceptor (Py-tract / BPS region)
c.124-50A>G
Deep-intronic; may activate cryptic site
r.123_456del
RNA-level deletion (predicted exon skipping)
r.spl?
Unknown splice consequence
r.0?
No detectable RNA
p.0?
Unknown protein consequence
p.(=)
No predicted protein change (silent)
Validation tools: VariantValidator (Freeman 2018 Hum Mutat), Mutalyzer 2 (Lefter et al 2021 Bioinformatics 37:2811-2817).
Extended-Window Scoring for Deep-Intronic Variants
SpliceAI's default precomputed scores use a 50-nt window, missing variants that create pseudoexons in deep intronic regions. For unsolved Mendelian cases:
# Recompute with extended window
spliceai -I input.vcf -O output_2kb.vcf -R genome.fa -A grch38 -D 2000
# Or use CI-SpliceAI (Strauch 2022 PLoS One), SpliceAI retrained on curated GENCODE splice sites
Captures most pseudoexon-creating deep-intronic variants
-D 2000
Maximum sensitivity; some false positives at large distances
Pseudoexon creation in deep introns explains a substantial fraction of unsolved Mendelian disease alleles in current cohorts (estimates 5-15% across studies; specific quantitative range will vary by cohort and panel — verify against current literature). Disease examples: CFTR 3849+10kbC>T, USH2A c.7595-2144A>G, CEP290 c.2991+1655A>G (LCA10).
PP3 (supporting); strong candidate for RNA validation (PS3)
2/3 above
Concordant evidence
PP3 (supporting)
1/3 above
Discordant
Report inconclusive; flag for RNA validation
0/3 above
Concordant benign
BP4 (supporting)
Discordance is the most informative pattern — variants where one model sees impact and others don't are high priority for RNA validation.
Branchpoint Variant Detection
All current tools are weak at branchpoint variants because the BPS motif (yUnAy) has low information content. Specific branchpoint tools:
Tool
Method
Notes
BPP
Mixture model (BP motif + polypyrimidine tract)
Zhang 2017 Bioinformatics 33:3166
LaBranchoR
Bidirectional LSTM
Paggi & Bejerano 2018 RNA 24:1647
SVM-BPfinder
SVM on conservation+sequence
Corvelo 2010 PLoS Comput Biol
BPHunter
Genome-wide branchpoint screen against an aggregated experimental (lariat/RNA-seq) + computational BP database
Zhang 2022 PNAS
Branchpoint variants are under-recognized in clinical pipelines; SpliceAI captures only some because branchpoint motifs have low information content. Recommendation: when SpliceAI delta is borderline (0.1-0.3) for a variant in the BPS region (-18 to -40 from 3'ss), run BPHunter as supplement.
Splice-Switching ASO Design
Goal: Design antisense oligonucleotides to modulate splicing therapeutically (e.g. SMA ISS-N1, DMD exon skipping).
Approach: Use SpliceAI to predict impact of binding-site occlusion; check accessibility (RNAfold); avoid SR/hnRNP off-target motifs.
# Conceptual workflow - actual design uses ASO synthesis platforms# 1. Identify target ESE/ESS/ISE/ISS region from MaxEntScan + SpliceAI scan# 2. Design candidate 18-22 nt ASOs spanning the regulatory element# 3. For each ASO, simulate splice-site occlusion impact via SpliceAI on the masked sequence# 4. Filter for RNA accessibility (avoid stable hairpins) using RNAfold# 5. Whole-transcriptome SpliceAI scan for off-target binding (>=17/20 nt match)# 6. Avoid TLR9 immunostimulatory CpG motifs# Chemistry choices:# - 2'-MOE-PS: nusinersen-like (CNS, intrathecal)# - PMO: DMD ASOs (systemic IV)# - GalNAc-conjugated: hepatic targeting
Approved precedents: nusinersen (SMA ISS-N1 occlusion, exon 7 inclusion); risdiplam (small-molecule SMN2 splicing modulator); eteplirsen/golodirsen/casimersen/viltolarsen (DMD exon skipping). Design references: Hua 2008 AJHG; Roberts et al 2023 Nat Rev Drug Discov 22:917 (DMD therapeutic approaches).
Per-Tool Failure Modes
SpliceAI: 50nt Window Limitation
Trigger: Variant deep in an intron (>50 nt from canonical splice site).
Mechanism: Default precomputed scores use ±50 nt window; the model is trained on this context but pre-stored scores limit lookups.
Symptom: Known pathogenic deep-intronic variant scores low (<0.2); no pseudoexon detected.
Fix: Re-run with -D 500 or -D 2000; or try CI-SpliceAI (SpliceAI retrained on curated GENCODE splice sites) as a second predictor.
SpliceAI: Tissue Agnosticism
Trigger: Variant in a tissue-specific gene (NEFM in neurons, MAPT brain, DMD muscle isoforms).
Mechanism: SpliceAI is trained on aggregate GENCODE annotation; tissue-specific events with weak constitutive use score low.
Symptom: Tissue-specific pathogenic variant has low SpliceAI delta; functional impact still observed in target tissue.
Fix: Use Pangolin for tissue-aware prediction; or SpliceTransformer; require RNA validation in disease-relevant tissue.
Pangolin: Out-of-Training Tissue
Trigger: Disease tissue not represented in Pangolin's 4-species, 4-tissue (Cardoso-Moreira 2019 developmental) training set.
Mechanism: Pangolin extrapolates poorly to tissues outside training distribution.
Symptom: Pangolin score uncalibrated for queried tissue; doesn't agree with patient RNA-seq from that tissue.
Fix: Fall back to SpliceAI for tissues not in Pangolin training; or run patient RNA-seq directly.
MMSplice: Atypical Events
Trigger: Variant affecting a non-cassette event (MXE, complex multi-junction, AFE/ALE).
Mechanism: MMSplice modular model is trained primarily on cassette exon events.
Symptom: MMSplice ΔPSI doesn't match other predictors or empirical data for non-cassette events.
Fix: Use SpliceAI for non-cassette events; restrict MMSplice to cassette exon contexts.
CADD-Splice: Loss of Component Information
Trigger: Wanting to know which sub-component drove a high CADD-Splice score.
Mechanism: CADD-Splice combines SpliceAI + MMSplice + CADD into a single C-score; sub-component contributions are abstracted.
Symptom: "High CADD-Splice score but unclear why."
Fix: Run SpliceAI and MMSplice separately to see which contributed.
Branchpoint Variants: Low Information Motif
Trigger: Variant in the BPS region (-18 to -40 from 3'ss).
Mechanism: BPS motif (yUnAy) has low information content; CNNs struggle to learn the consensus.
Always check ClinVar first for existing classifications; cross-reference with gnomAD for population frequency before committing to PP3/PP4.
Common Errors
Error
Cause
Solution
spliceai: tensorflow not found
TensorFlow not installed
pip install tensorflow>=2.0 separately
spliceai: chrom not in reference
VCF chrom name mismatch (chr1 vs 1)
bcftools annotate --rename-chrs chr_map.txt
pangolin: no annotations found for variant
gffutils db doesn't contain queried gene
Rebuild gffutils db with comprehensive GENCODE GFF3
mmsplice: variant outside any cassette event
MMSplice model assumes cassette context
Use SpliceAI for non-cassette events
SpliceVault: variant not found
Variant outside common splice sites in 300K-RNA database
Use SpliceAI for prediction (no empirical baseline available)
VariantValidator: invalid HGVS
Wrong reference transcript or build
Specify NM_. version explicitly
Common Pitfalls
Using SpliceAI score alone for clinical reporting — must combine with concordant predictors and ideally RNA validation; ClinGen SVI requires this for non-canonical positions.
50nt window for deep intronic variants — pseudoexon-creating variants 100-2000 nt deep are systematically missed.
Tissue-agnostic prediction for tissue-specific genes — use Pangolin or SpliceTransformer when tissue context matters (NEFM, MAPT, DMD isoforms).
Branchpoint variants — all current predictors are weak here. Use BPHunter for branchpoint screening.
Forgetting NMD direction — confirmed splice disruption needs NMD-status check. Last-exon PTCs escape NMD and can be dominant-negative or gain-of-function.
In-silico-only PVS1 application — PVS1 for non-canonical positions requires functional or strong computational evidence; SpliceAI alone is supporting (PP3), not very strong.
Trusting LLMs for variant interpretation — use as orchestrators on top of SpliceAI/VariantValidator/ClinVar; all clinical-grade calls require human expert sign-off.
Skipping HGVS validation — invalid HGVS leads to silent reference-transcript mismatches; always run VariantValidator first.
Quality Thresholds
Metric
Recommendation
Source
Default SpliceAI window
-D 50 (clinical screening)
Jaganathan 2019
Deep-intronic SpliceAI window
-D 500-2000 (unsolved Mendelian)
Convention (verify current literature)
ACMG PP3 (supporting)
SpliceAI delta >= 0.2
Walker 2023 AJHG (apply at supporting weight)
ACMG BP4 (supporting)
SpliceAI delta <= 0.1
Walker 2023 AJHG
SpliceAI higher-precision cutoffs
0.5 / 0.8 raise precision, NOT ACMG strength
Jaganathan 2019 (not ClinGen graded tiers)
Off-target ASO match
<=16/20 nt to any non-target transcript
Design convention
Concordance for high-confidence
2/3 predictors above PP3 threshold
Pragmatic
Related Skills
splicing-qc - MaxEntScan + library QC for confirming predicted impact
splicing-quantification - Empirical PSI from RNA-seq to validate predictions
outlier-splicing-detection - FRASER2/DROP for RNA-seq confirmation in clinical samples
