bio-genome-assembly-genome-profiling

name	bio-genome-assembly-genome-profiling
description	Profiles a genome from raw reads BEFORE assembly with a k-mer spectrum (KMC or Jellyfish histogram), then models it with GenomeScope2 to estimate genome size, heterozygosity, repeat content, and ploidy, and Smudgeplot to infer ploidy from heterozygous k-mer pairs (diploid AB vs triploid AAB vs tetraploid AABB). Covers choosing k via Merqury best_k.sh, the k-mer-coverage vs sequencing-coverage confusion, reading het/repeat/contamination/organelle peaks, why noisy ONT must not be used for counting, and how the estimate becomes the NG50 denominator, the Flye -g value, the hifiasm --hom-cov/purge setting, and the 1.5-2x-too-big haplotig sanity check. Use when starting any de novo assembly, deciding whether short reads can work, estimating genome size for an unknown organism, diagnosing ploidy, or sanity-checking an assembly's size against expectation.
tool_type	cli
primary_tool	GenomeScope2

Version Compatibility

Reference examples tested with: GenomeScope2 2.0+, KMC 3.2+, Jellyfish 2.3+, meryl 1.4+ (Merqury 1.3+), Smudgeplot 0.2.5+, KAT 2.4+.

Before using code patterns, verify installed versions match. If versions differ:

• CLI: <tool> --version then <tool> --help to confirm flags

Smudgeplot changed its backend: classic releases (0.2.x) run smudgeplot.py hetkmers/smudgeplot.py plot on a KMC dump; newer releases (0.3+) run smudgeplot hetmers/smudgeplot all on a FastK database. Confirm which interface is installed (smudgeplot.py --version or smudgeplot --version) before scripting. GenomeScope2 ships as genomescope2 and as genomescope.R; both take the same flags. meryl best_k.sh lives in the Merqury install. If code throws an error, introspect the installed tool and adapt rather than retrying.

Genome Profiling

"What am I about to assemble, and what should I expect?" -> Build a k-mer spectrum from raw accurate reads and model it to estimate genome size, heterozygosity, repeat content, and ploidy, which set every downstream assembly expectation and parameter.

• CLI: kmc -k21 ... reads kmc_db tmp/ && kmc_tools transform kmc_db histogram reads.histo (count) then genomescope2 -i reads.histo -o gs_out -k 21 -p 2 (model); smudgeplot.py hetkmers / smudgeplot.py plot (ploidy)

The Single Most Important Modern Insight -- Profile the Genome Before Assembling, or the Assembler Guesses For Itself

A k-mer spectrum built from the raw reads -- reference-free, before a single contig exists -- estimates genome size, heterozygosity, repeat content, and ploidy, and those four numbers set the rest of the project: the NG50 denominator (assembly-qc), Flye's -g/--genome-size, hifiasm's --hom-cov/purge level, and whether short reads can produce the assembly being asked for at all. Skipping it leaves the assembler to infer the homozygous-coverage peak itself; when it mis-estimates (heterozygosity, odd ploidy, contamination, a bimodal coverage spectrum) it over- or under-purges, and that is exactly why people publish genomes inflated 1.5-2x by uncollapsed haplotigs. Three load-bearing moves:

1. The estimate is the denominator AND the sanity check. NG50 is N50 against the expected genome size, not the assembly size, so without the estimate NG50 cannot be reported honestly. After assembly, the same number is the haplotig test: an assembly 1.5-2x the GenomeScope size with high BUSCO-Duplicated is uncollapsed haplotypes, not a big genome -- purge before believing the size (see hifi-assembly, assembly-qc).
2. The spectrum reads as a diagnostic, not just a size estimate. A single homozygous peak ~= haploid/inbred; a distinct half-coverage (AB) peak left of the homozygous (AA) peak is heterozygous diploid, and the het peak's area gives the heterozygosity rate. A heavy high-multiplicity tail is repeat content; a spike at very high multiplicity is organelle or high-copy repeat; a left-shoulder near multiplicity 1 is sequencing error or a low-coverage contaminant. Read it before trusting any number from it.
3. Count with accurate reads only. GenomeScope's negative-binomial mixture model assumes errors are rare and Poisson-like. Noisy ONT (raw/HAC) injects so many unique error k-mers that the error shoulder swamps the real peaks and the fit fails. Count from Illumina or PacBio HiFi; use the ONT reads to assemble, never to profile.

Tool Taxonomy

Tool	Citation	Role	When
KMC	Kokot 2017 Bioinformatics	disk-based k-mer counter -> histogram	default counter; frugal on RAM, fast on large genomes
Jellyfish	Marcais & Kingsford 2011 Bioinformatics	in-memory k-mer counter -> histogram	alternative counter; classic GenomeScope input
meryl	Rhie 2020 Genome Biol	k-mer counter + best_k.sh	derives k from genome size; feeds Merqury QV downstream
GenomeScope2	Ranallo-Benavidez 2020 Nat Commun	model: size, het, repeat, ploidy from the histogram	the profiling model for diploids and polyploids
Smudgeplot	Ranallo-Benavidez 2020 Nat Commun	ploidy from het k-mer-pair coverage ratios	unknown ploidy; cross-check GenomeScope's -p
KAT	Mapleson 2017 Bioinformatics	spectra plots, reads-vs-assembly k-mer comparison	contamination triage; post-assembly completeness/spectra-cn

Decision Tree by Scenario

Scenario	What the profile indicates	Path
Single sharp peak, size ~ expected, low het	haploid/inbred or clonal; clean	proceed -> short-read-assembly or hifi-assembly with default purge
Two peaks (AB at ~half AA)	heterozygous diploid; het rate from AB area	HiFi+phasing best; if short reads only, expect haplotigs -> short-read-assembly (Platanus)
High het + Illumina only	short-read DBG will fragment and inflate 1.5-2x	get long reads, or plan purge_dups; do not report inflated size
GenomeScope -p 2 fits poorly; Smudgeplot shows AAB/AABB	triploid/tetraploid; ploidy not 2	re-run GenomeScope with correct -p; -> hifi-assembly haplotype expectations
Coverage peak < ~15-20x	too shallow for a stable model fit	sequence more, or treat size/het as lower-confidence; -> read-qc/quality-reports
Extra peak at odd multiplicity, or bimodal spectrum	contamination / organelle / mixed sample	KAT spectra triage; screen reads -> read-qc/quality-reports before assembling
Only noisy ONT available	cannot profile reliably from error-dominated spectrum	assemble first, then estimate size from the assembly + Merqury -> assembly-qc
Need the genome-size denominator for QC	GenomeScope haploid length	feed as NG50 expected size and Flye -g -> assembly-qc, long-read-assembly

Choosing k

Goal: Pick a k that is large enough that most k-mers are genomically unique but small enough to keep per-k-mer depth high.

Approach: Derive k from the expected genome size with Merqury's best_k.sh (formula k = log4(G(1-p)/p), default tolerable collision rate p=0.001); a vertebrate-scale ~3 Gb genome returns k=21 (the de facto GenomeScope default), ~1 Gb returns k=20, and a ~12 Mb yeast returns k=17.

sh $MERQURY/best_k.sh 3100000000          # ~3.1 Gb vertebrate -> k=21 (the common GenomeScope default)
sh $MERQURY/best_k.sh 1000000000          # ~1 Gb -> k=20
sh $MERQURY/best_k.sh 12000000            # ~12 Mb yeast -> k=17

Too small a k saturates: nearly every k-mer recurs across the genome by chance, the unique/repeat peaks merge, and size is overestimated. Too large a k loses depth (per-k-mer coverage is c*(L-k+1)/L, so it drops as k rises) and the peaks blur into the error shoulder. k=21 is the long-standing default at vertebrate (~3 Gb) scale because it sits in this window; smaller genomes want smaller k (best_k.sh returns ~20 at 1 Gb, ~17 at 12 Mb). Use the SAME k for counting and for the -k passed to GenomeScope2.

Counting K-mers and Running GenomeScope2

# KMC: -ci1 keeps singletons (the error shoulder GenomeScope models), -cs10000 caps the histogram tail
kmc -k21 -t16 -m64 -ci1 -cs10000 @fastq_list.txt kmc_db tmp/
kmc_tools transform kmc_db histogram reads.histo -cx10000

# GenomeScope2: -p 2 = diploid; raise for known/Smudgeplot-suggested polyploidy
genomescope2 -i reads.histo -o gs_out -k 21 -p 2

# Jellyfish alternative (-C canonical k-mers, mandatory for unstranded WGS)
jellyfish count -C -m 21 -s 4G -t 16 reads_*.fastq -o reads.jf
jellyfish histo -t 16 reads.jf > reads_jf.histo

GenomeScope2 writes a model fit (model.txt), the linear/log spectrum plots, and a summary with haploid genome length, heterozygosity, and a "% unique" (inverse of repeat content). -cs10000/-cx10000 cap the histogram so a single organelle/repeat spike at multiplicity 100000+ does not dominate the file; raise the cap only for very high-coverage data.

K-mer Coverage vs Sequencing Coverage (the confusion that breaks the fit)

GenomeScope reports kmercov (lambda) -- the mean coverage per k-mer, the x-position of the homozygous peak. This is NOT per-base sequencing coverage. They differ by the (L-k+1)/L factor: at read length L=150 and k=21, a k-mer is covered 130/150 ~= 0.87x as often as a base, so a 50x-sequenced genome shows a homozygous peak near multiplicity 43, not 50. Passing the sequencing coverage where GenomeScope expects the k-mer-coverage peak (e.g. as an -l initial guess), or reading lambda back as sequencing depth, mis-scales the model and the size estimate. Read the peak off the plot; let GenomeScope estimate lambda unless the fit fails, then seed -l with the observed peak position.

Ploidy with Smudgeplot

# Classic (0.2.x, KMC backend): pick L/U coverage cutoffs, dump het k-mer pairs, plot
L=$(smudgeplot.py cutoff kmc_db.histo L)     # ~0.5x the haploid peak (errors below)
U=$(smudgeplot.py cutoff kmc_db.histo U)     # ~8.5x the haploid peak (repeats above)
kmc_tools transform kmc_db -ci"$L" -cx"$U" dump -s kmc_L"$L"_U"$U".dump
smudgeplot.py hetkmers -o kmer_pairs < kmc_L"$L"_U"$U".dump
smudgeplot.py plot kmer_pairs_coverages.tsv -o sample

Smudgeplot infers ploidy from the coverage RATIO of heterozygous k-mer pairs, independent of GenomeScope's model: a diploid AB pair sits at CovB/(CovA+CovB) ~= 0.5, a triploid AAB near 0.33, a tetraploid AABB shows smudges at 0.25 and 0.5. When Smudgeplot's inferred ploidy disagrees with the -p that fit GenomeScope best, that disagreement is itself the finding -- re-examine for polyploidy, aneuploidy, or contamination rather than forcing one answer.

Per-Method Failure Modes

Profiling from noisy ONT

Trigger: counting k-mers from raw/HAC Nanopore reads. Mechanism: ~5-10% per-base error makes nearly every error k-mer unique, burying the real peaks under the multiplicity-1 shoulder. Symptom: GenomeScope fit fails or returns absurd size/het. Fix: count from Illumina or HiFi; profile from the assembly + Merqury if only ONT exists.

Too-low coverage

Trigger: homozygous peak below ~15-20x. Mechanism: the error shoulder and the real peak overlap; the negative-binomial mixture cannot separate them. Symptom: wide confidence intervals, unstable size, no clean peaks. Fix: sequence more depth, or report size/het as low-confidence.

Reading lambda as sequencing depth

Trigger: treating GenomeScope kmercov as per-base coverage, or seeding -l with sequencing depth. Mechanism: k-mer coverage = depth * (L-k+1)/L < depth. Symptom: mis-scaled model, size off by the (L-k+1)/L factor. Fix: read lambda off the peak; do not substitute sequencing coverage.

k too small (saturation)

Trigger: k=15-17 on a large/repeat-rich genome. Mechanism: most k-mers recur by chance; unique and repeat components merge. Symptom: inflated size, blurred peaks. Fix: use best_k.sh for the expected size (k=21 at vertebrate ~3 Gb scale; smaller for smaller genomes).

Contamination/organelle distorting the spectrum

Trigger: an unexplained extra peak or a spike at very high multiplicity. Mechanism: a second organism's k-mers add their own peak; organelle/high-copy DNA spikes the tail. Symptom: GenomeScope size too large or a multi-modal spectrum. Fix: KAT spectra triage; screen reads (-> read-qc/quality-reports) before assembling.

Quantitative Thresholds

Threshold	Source	Rationale
k from best_k.sh (21 at ~3 Gb, 20 at ~1 Gb, 17 at ~12 Mb)	best_k.sh k=log4(G(1-p)/p), p=0.001	balances uniqueness vs per-k-mer depth; k=21 is the common GenomeScope default at vertebrate scale
Homozygous peak >= ~15-20x	GenomeScope model stability	below this the error shoulder and real peak cannot be separated
AB peak at ~0.5x the AA peak	diploid k-mer theory	heterozygous k-mers are half-covered (one haplotype); het rate from AB area
Smudgeplot CovB/(CovA+CovB): 0.5 / 0.33 / 0.25	k-mer-pair coverage ratio	AB diploid / AAB triploid / AABB tetraploid
Assembly size 1.5-2x GenomeScope estimate	haplotig norm	uncollapsed heterozygous haplotypes; purge before reporting size
KMC -cs/GenomeScope -cx cap ~10000	histogram tail control	prevents an organelle/repeat spike from dominating the file
Smudgeplot L ~0.5x, U ~8.5x haploid peak	Smudgeplot guidance	excludes errors (below) and high-copy repeats (above) from pairing

Common Errors

Error / symptom	Cause	Solution
GenomeScope size far larger than expected	k too small, contamination, or organelle spike	raise k via best_k.sh; cap the tail; screen reads
Model fit fails / "cannot fit"	too-low coverage or ONT error k-mers	more depth; count from Illumina/HiFi, not noisy ONT
Histogram peak at multiplicity ~43 for "50x" data	k-mer coverage = depth * (L-k+1)/L, not depth	expected; do not pass sequencing depth as -l
GenomeScope -p 2 fits poorly	sample is not diploid	run Smudgeplot; re-run with the correct -p
Jellyfish histogram looks halved	counted without -C (canonical)	recount with -C; WGS is unstranded
Assembly 1.8x the profiled size	uncollapsed haplotigs	purge_dups / hifiasm purge; report the haploid size

References

• Ranallo-Benavidez TR, Jaron KS, Schatz MC. 2020. GenomeScope 2.0 and Smudgeplot for reference-free profiling of polyploid genomes. Nat Commun 11:1432.
• Vurture GW, et al. 2017. GenomeScope: fast reference-free genome profiling from short reads. Bioinformatics 33:2202-2204.
• Kokot M, Dlugosz M, Deorowicz S. 2017. KMC 3: counting and manipulating k-mer statistics. Bioinformatics 33:2759-2761.
• Marcais G, Kingsford C. 2011. A fast, lock-free approach for efficient parallel counting of occurrences of k-mers (Jellyfish). Bioinformatics 27:764-770.
• Rhie A, Walenz BP, Koren S, Phillippy AM. 2020. Merqury: reference-free quality, completeness, and phasing assessment for genome assemblies. Genome Biol 21:245.
• Mapleson D, et al. 2017. KAT: a K-mer analysis toolkit to quality control NGS datasets and genome assemblies. Bioinformatics 33:574-576.

Related Skills

• short-read-assembly - High het from the profile predicts short-read fragmentation and haplotig inflation
• hifi-assembly - The profiled size/het sets hifiasm --hom-cov and the purge level
• long-read-assembly - The profiled genome size feeds Flye -g and ONT/PacBio expectations
• assembly-qc - The estimate is the NG50 denominator and the 1.5-2x haplotig sanity check
• read-qc/quality-reports - QC and contamination-screen reads before profiling and assembling
• workflows/genome-assembly-pipeline - Profiling is the first step of the end-to-end assembly workflow