content-writing

name	content-writing
description	Copywriting and content creation standards for website pages, blog posts, and all written copy. Covers headlines, ledes, readability, niche vocabulary, scannable formatting, and persuasive structure. Cross-cutting skill — apply whenever generating or editing any website text.

Content Writing Skill

Professional copywriting standards for website copy, blog posts, articles, and all written content. This is a cross-cutting skill — apply these principles whenever creating or editing text for any page.

Use when

• Copywriting and content creation standards for website pages, blog posts, and all written copy. Covers headlines, ledes, readability, niche vocabulary, scannable formatting, and persuasive structure. Cross-cutting skill — apply whenever generating or editing any website text.
• Apply it alongside the primary deliverable skill whenever wording, tone, or editorial quality needs control.

Do not use when

• Do not use this skill for graphic design, video production, software development, or legal advice beyond the repository's stated scope.
• Do not use it when another skill in this repository is clearly more specific to the requested deliverable.
• Do not use this skill as a substitute for the main document, strategy, or copy-generation skill.

Workflow

1. Read the requested draft, source text, or surrounding brief before making language decisions.
2. Apply the rules in this skill consistently across the whole deliverable, not only the obvious problem lines.
3. Return corrected copy, guidance, or a style-constrained draft that the paired skill can use directly.

Anti-Patterns

• Do not invent client facts, performance data, budgets, or approvals that were not provided or clearly inferred from evidence.
• Do not skip required inputs, mandatory sections, or quality checks just to make the output shorter.
• Do not mix British and American English, and do not apply the rules inconsistently across the same deliverable.

Outputs

• A reusable style standard, rewrite, or editing pass that improves another deliverable rather than replacing it.

References

• Read references/business-vocabulary.md when you need the deeper framework, examples, or supporting material it contains.
• Read references/reader-empathy-and-voc.md when the copy needs stronger customer language, clearer objections, or better audience empathy.
• Read ../premium-commercial-writing/SKILL.md when the copy must meet a premium commercial standard, justify higher fees, or improve proof, positioning, search authority, and conversion value.

Required Input

Start with the actual draft, page brief, or source material you are improving. If the audience, goal, or CTA is unclear, clarify those before editing or writing.

The Reader-First Rule

Every word exists for the reader, not the writer. Before writing anything, answer:

• Who is the reader? What do they already know?
• What are they looking for? What problem brought them here?
• Why should they care? What benefit do they gain?

Write for the reader all the time. That is what separates content that converts from content that gets ignored.

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Headlines & Titles

The headline is the most important element. Five times as many people read the headline as read the body. If the headline fails, everything below it is wasted.

Headline Rules

1. Promise a benefit. Headlines that promise benefits outperform those that don't.
2. Give news. Readers seek new information — new products, new methods, new insights.
3. Select your reader. Flag down the people you want. If writing for banana farmers, put "banana farmers" in the headline.
4. Be specific. "How to Increase Banana Yield by 40%" beats "Tips for Better Farming."
5. Long headlines that say something outpull short headlines that say nothing. Never sacrifice clarity for brevity.
6. Write the headline AFTER the content. Only then do you know the full scope and best angle.
7. Telegraph in simple language. Readers do not stop to decipher obscure headlines.

Headline Formulas That Work

• How to [achieve desired result]: "How to Store Bananas for Maximum Shelf Life"
• [Number] Ways/Reasons/Steps: "7 Steps to Higher-Quality Matooke Flour"
• Question that mirrors the reader's problem: "Is Your Banana Crop Vulnerable to Fusarium Wilt?"
• News/announcement: "New Banana Cultivar Resists Black Sigatoka Disease"
• Direct benefit: "Reduce Post-Harvest Losses by Half with These Storage Methods"

What to Avoid in Headlines

• Clever wordplay the reader won't get
• Headlines that could apply to any topic (too generic)
• ALL CAPS for entire headlines (harder to read)
• Clickbait that the content cannot deliver on

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The Lede (Opening)

Your first 10 words are more important than the next 10,000. The lede must sell the reader on continuing.

Lede Rules

1. No throat-clearing. Do not warm up, set the scene, or provide background before the point. Get to the substance in the first sentence.
2. Maximum 11 words in the opening paragraph (Ogilvy's rule). Short opening paragraphs draw the eye in.
3. Lead with the most important information. Use the inverted pyramid — who, what, where, when, why first. Details follow in descending order of importance.
4. Create a reason to keep reading. The lede either promises useful information, provokes curiosity, or states something surprising.

Lede Types

• News lede: State the key fact. "BIRDC has released three new banana cultivars resistant to Fusarium TR4."
• Problem lede: Name the reader's pain. "Post-harvest banana losses in East Africa exceed 40% — most of it preventable."
• Story lede: Brief, vivid scene (2-3 sentences max, then get to the point). "A farmer in Bushenyi watched half her harvest rot in three days. The cause was a storage mistake that costs Uganda millions annually."
• Question lede: Ask what the reader is already wondering. "What makes East African highland bananas different from every other cultivar on the planet?"

Ledes to Avoid

• Starting with "In today's world..." or "Since the dawn of time..."
• Background history before the point
• Definitions from the dictionary
• Throat-clearing: "This article will explore..." or "It is important to note that..."

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Readability

Write at a reading level your audience can easily absorb. For general web audiences, target grade 8 readability (Gunning Fog Index of 8).

The Fog Index Formula

Fog Index = 0.4 x (average words per sentence + percentage of words with 3+ syllables)

• Target: 8 or below for general audiences
• 10-12 for educated professional audiences
• Above 12 means you are losing readers

Readability Rules

1. Noun-then-verb sentence structure. Put the subject early, follow it closely with the verb. "The consumer foods division increased revenues by 22%" beats "During the third quarter, revenues in the consumer foods division, which covers all packaged goods, were up 22%." Distance between subject and verb is the enemy of clarity.
2. Short sentences. Average 15-20 words per sentence. Mix lengths — some 5-word sentences, some 25-word, but never above 30.
3. Short paragraphs. 1-4 sentences. One idea per paragraph. A single-sentence paragraph is powerful.
4. Short words. Prefer one- and two-syllable words. "Use" not "utilise." "Help" not "facilitate." "Start" not "commence."
5. Active voice by default; passive by intention. "The farmer harvested the crop" is the default. Use passive deliberately: to avoid assigning blame ("The report was not completed on schedule"), or to foreground the object over the actor ("A study on soil erosion was published by researchers in Nairobi"). Never use passive because you forgot to name the actor.
6. Concrete nouns and strong verbs. "Banana yields dropped 30%" not "There was a significant reduction in production output."
7. Cut mercilessly. If a word adds nothing, delete it. "In order to" → "to." "At this point in time" → "now." "Due to the fact that" → "because."

Words That Lose Readers

If readers must look up a word, you've interrupted the flow and may lose them entirely. Prefer the simple alternative:

Instead of	Write
ameliorate	improve
commence	start, begin
endeavour	try
facilitate	help, enable
implement	do, carry out
subsequent	next, later
utilise	use
approximately	about
in the event that	if
with regard to	about

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Niche Vocabulary (Thematic Depth)

Every topic has essential words and phrases that naturally appear in expert-written content. Google and readers both recognise this "niche vocabulary" — it signals authority and depth.

How to Use Niche Vocabulary

1. Identify the core terms for your topic. For banana research, these might include: cultivar, Musa, highland banana, matooke, tissue culture, Fusarium, Black Sigatoka, post-harvest, value chain, smallholder, East African highland.
2. Use them naturally. Do not force keywords. Write as an expert would — the vocabulary emerges from genuine knowledge.
3. Cover the topic thoroughly. A page on "banana tissue culture" that never mentions propagation, plantlets, sterile media, or acclimatisation looks thin to both readers and search engines.
4. Different subtopics need different vocabulary. A page on banana diseases uses different core terms than a page on banana food products.

What NOT to Do

• Do not stuff keywords repeatedly (old SEO — Google penalises this)
• Do not create separate pages for minor keyword variations (one thorough page beats five thin ones)
• Do not sacrifice readability for keyword inclusion

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Scannable Formatting

Readers scan before they read. If scanning reveals nothing useful, they leave.

Formatting Rules

1. Subheadings every 2-3 paragraphs. Subheads are the signposts — readers should understand the page's content by reading only the subheads.
2. Bullet points for lists of 3+ items. Bullets are faster to scan than embedded lists in prose.
3. Bold key phrases within paragraphs — the words a scanner's eye should catch. Bold the introductory keyword of a bullet, not the entire bullet — bolding everything defeats emphasis and makes lists visually muddy.
4. Pull quotes or callout boxes for critical statistics or insights.
5. Images or visuals every 200-300 words to break up text and provide visual rest.
6. Captions under images — captions are read 2x more than body copy (Ogilvy). Write them in present tense. Identify people left to right. Describe what the photo alone cannot convey — not "A man at work" but "Thomas Kiggundu, head of operations, checks the new inventory system at the Kampala warehouse." Match name spelling to body text exactly.
7. White space is content. Generous margins and padding help the eye focus.

Bullet Formats (Pick One Per List, Be Consistent)

Three valid formats — choose the one that fits and apply it to every item in that list:

1. Single words or short phrases — no period, no full verb (use in feature lists, tag clouds)
2. Intro phrase + colon + explanation. Each item ends with a period.
3. Complete sentences. Each item is a full, standalone sentence ending with a period.

Chunking rule: Working memory holds approximately 7 items. Never exceed 9 items per list. If you have 12 items, split into two grouped lists with a mini-subhead each.

Above the Fold

The content visible without scrolling must immediately answer: "Am I in the right place?" and "What's in it for me?" Place the strongest headline, the clearest value proposition, and (on landing pages) a CTA above the fold.

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The "So What?" Test

After writing any claim, ask: "So what?" If you cannot answer with a clear, specific benefit or implication, either add the answer or cut the claim. This test applies at sentence, paragraph, and page level.

• "We have 15 years of experience." — So what? → "You get a team that has solved this problem in 23 organisations — and won't repeat the mistakes they made in the first five."
• "Our platform uses cloud infrastructure." — So what? → "Your team accesses the system from any device, anywhere in Africa, with no server costs."

A claim without a "so what" answer is decoration, not content.

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Attribution as Authority

Unsupported claims are assertions. Claims with a source are evidence. Readers trust evidence more, and search engines reward specificity.

Rule: Every statistic, research finding, and quoted opinion needs a source. "Who says so?" is the editorial test. If you cannot answer it, either find a source or reframe as an opinion.

Assertion (weak)	Attributed (strong)
Post-harvest losses are a major problem	Post-harvest losses in East Africa exceed 40% of production — IFPRI, 2023
Mobile payments are growing fast	M-Pesa processes more transactions monthly than Western Union does globally in a year
Remote work is increasing	58% of East African knowledge workers worked remotely at least part-time in 2024 — Jobberman survey

How to cite in web copy: For blog articles — inline attribution in the sentence ("according to the World Bank") and a linked reference at the end. For landing pages — use the claim directly with attribution in small print below or as a footnote. Do not use footnote numbers in running prose — they interrupt flow.

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Unique Value Proposition

Every page must answer: Why should I read this instead of the hundred other pages on the same topic?

How to Create Unique Value

1. Original data or research. Primary research that readers cannot find elsewhere.
2. Expert perspective. Analysis, not just facts — what does this mean for the reader?
3. Practical application. Show how to apply the information, not just what it is.
4. More thorough coverage. If competitors cover 5 points, cover 10 — with more depth.
5. Better formatting. A well-structured, scannable page beats a wall of text with the same information.

Never regurgitate information available elsewhere without adding a new angle, deeper analysis, or practical guidance. Content that merely restates existing material adds no value.

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The WIIFM Principle

Every piece of content — before a word is written — must answer the reader's unspoken question: "What's In It For Me?"

Edwards, Edwards and Douglas (1991)

This is not a copywriting technique. It is a complete mental reorientation: stop thinking about what the client wants to say and start thinking about what the audience wants to hear, find, solve, or achieve.

Apply before writing:

• Who specifically is reading this?
• What do they want to accomplish, avoid, or understand?
• What is the one thing in this content that is most directly useful to them?
• Lead with that.

Features vs Benefits

Always translate features into reader benefits. Features describe what something is; benefits describe what it does for the reader.

Feature	Benefit
Disease-resistant cultivar	Your crop survives when others fail
Tissue culture propagation	Uniform plants, faster establishment, guaranteed disease-free
18-month research programme	Proven results before you invest
Laboratory-tested quality standards	Confidence that your product meets export requirements

Rule: For every feature you mention, immediately follow with the benefit using "so that," "which means," or "this gives you."

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Structure Templates

Blog Post / Article Structure

Headline (benefit-driven, specific)
  ↓
Lede (1-2 short paragraphs — hook + promise)
  ↓
Context (why this matters now — 1-2 paragraphs)
  ↓
Main content (subheaded sections, each with:
  - Subhead (tells the story on its own)
  - 2-3 short paragraphs
  - Bullet points where applicable
  - Image/visual if relevant)
  ↓
Takeaways (bulleted summary of key points)
  ↓
CTA (what should the reader do next?)

Service/Product Page Structure

Headline (what it does for the reader)
  ↓
Problem statement (the pain the reader has)
  ↓
Solution overview (how this solves it — 2-3 sentences)
  ↓
Key benefits (3-5, bulleted, benefit language)
  ↓
How it works (simple steps or process)
  ↓
Evidence (data, testimonials, credentials)
  ↓
CTA (clear next action)

About Page Structure

Mission statement (what you do and why it matters)
  ↓
Story (brief origin — problem you saw, what you did)
  ↓
What makes you different (credentials, approach, values)
  ↓
Team / People (humanise the organisation)
  ↓
CTA (connect, partner, learn more)

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Keeping Eyes Moving

Even strong prose needs visual help to keep readers engaged through the full page.

Visual Touchpoints

• Subheads — the primary eye-catcher when attention drifts
• Bold text — highlights key phrases within paragraphs
• Bulleted/numbered lists — faster to scan than prose
• Images with captions — captions read 2x more than body copy
• Pull quotes — featured text that draws the eye
• Short paragraphs — white space between paragraphs creates entry points

Paragraph Discipline

• Never write more than 3 paragraphs without a subhead
• Vary paragraph length (1 sentence, then 3 sentences, then 2)
• A one-sentence paragraph is powerful emphasis — use it for key points
• Keep paragraphs to 4 lines maximum on screen

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Writing Styles

Choose the appropriate voice for each piece:

1. Journalistic/factual — impartial, evidence-based, authoritative. Best for: research summaries, industry reports, technical content.
2. Storytelling/personal — real experience, named people, specific details. Best for: case studies, farmer success stories, about pages.
3. Combined — facts presented through a narrative lens with expert commentary. Best for: blog posts, innovation updates, most website copy.

The storytelling style builds trust because readers connect with real experiences. But it must always serve the content — never use story as padding.

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Quality Standards

Before publishing any page or post, verify:

• Headline promises a specific benefit or gives news
• Lede hooks within the first 10 words — no throat-clearing
• Readability at target level (Fog Index 8-10 for general content)
• Niche vocabulary used naturally — topic covered with authority
• Subheads every 2-3 paragraphs — scannable on their own
• Short paragraphs (4 lines max), short sentences (avg 15-20 words)
• Benefits, not just features — "so that / which means" test
• Unique value — what does this page offer that competitors don't?
• CTA present — reader knows what to do next
• No jargon without explanation — every word earnable by the reader
• Active voice predominates — strong verbs, concrete nouns
• Images/visuals break up text at appropriate intervals
• Captions on all images (read 2x more than body copy)
• Proofread — grammar, spelling, factual accuracy checked

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Customer-Focused Copy

Your website exists for the visitor, not the business owner. Every page must pass the "you" test.

The You/We Ratio

Count "you" and "your" versus "I", "we", "our" on every page. "You/your" must outnumber "I/we/our" by at least 2:1. If the ratio is wrong, rephrase:

Self-centred	Customer-focused
We provide custom solutions	You get a system built for your workflow
I will teach you	You will learn
Our team has 15 years of experience	Your project benefits from 15 years of experience
We offer 24/7 support	You reach a real person any time you need help

No Welcome Text

Never write "Welcome to our website", "Thanks for visiting", or "I invite you to look around." These waste the reader's most valuable seconds — the first impression. Open with what you do and why it matters to them.

No Telling Visitors How to Feel

Never write "Isn't it great?", "Easy, right?", or "How awesome is that?" Let the content create the feeling. If you have to tell visitors to feel impressed, the content isn't impressive enough.

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The 4 Most Persuasive Words

Research-backed words that increase reader engagement and action (Cialdini, Ariely):

1. "You" — immediately signals relevance to the reader. Every sentence with "you" pulls the reader in. Count "you/your" vs "we/our" — "you" must win 2:1 minimum.
2. The reader's name — in personalised emails and direct communication, using the reader's name triggers trust. In web copy: use it in form follow-ups, email sequences, and CRM touchpoints.
3. "Free" — triggers near-irrational engagement even when the reader knows it is a tactic. Use for lead magnets, guides, consultations. Never fake it.
4. "Because" — adding any reason after "because" increases compliance dramatically (Cialdini: from 60% to 94% in queue experiments). Give a reason for every CTA. "Download the guide because your competitors already have it" outperforms "Download the guide."

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Assertive Language

Confident copy converts. Tentative language signals doubt about your own offering.

Banned Hedge Words

Ban	Replace with
Maybe we can work together	Let's work together
Feel free to reach out	Contact us
Perhaps this could help	This helps you [specific benefit]
Don't hesitate to contact us	Contact us
In case you're interested	Interested? [CTA]
We think / We believe	[Just state it directly]
Possibly / Potentially	[Delete or be specific]

Questions Must Get "Yes"

If you use a question in a headline or CTA, it MUST get a "yes" from the target audience. Questions that prompt "no" or "I don't know" kill conversions.

• Bad: "Ready to upgrade your plan?" (Who is ever ready?)
• Bad: "Would you like to work together?" (Not sure yet)
• Good: "Want to spend less time on paperwork?" (Yes!)
• Good: "Want your tenants to pay on time?" (Always!)

If unsure whether the question will get a "yes", use a declarative sentence instead.

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Awareness-Level Copy Matching

Different visitors know different amounts about their problem and your solution. Match your copy to their awareness level (Eugene Schwartz's 5 stages):

Stage	What they know	What to say
Unaware	Nothing about the problem	Speak to their current situation
Problem-aware	They have a problem, no solution	Show you understand the pain, present the "what" of your solution
Solution-aware	They want a result, don't know your product	Show how and why your solution works
Product-aware	They know your product, unsure if it's right	Differentiate from alternatives, prove it works
Most aware	They know everything, want to buy	Show the deal immediately

Homepage targets Problem-aware and Solution-aware (the majority of first-time visitors). Service/product pages target Solution-aware and Product-aware. Contact/pricing pages target Most Aware — don't re-explain benefits, just make it easy to act. Blog posts target Unaware and Problem-aware — educate first, sell later.

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Memorable Key Messages

From cognitive science: people remember at most 10% of what you tell them. Control WHICH 10%.

Rules for Memorable Messages

1. One key message per page. If everything is important, nothing is. Decide the single thing you want visitors to remember and repeat it.
2. Make it repeatable. Your key message should be short enough (under 10 words) that a visitor could repeat it to a friend: "They help landlords get paid on time."
3. Attach it to a future action. People remember content that helps them plan their next step. End sections with what the reader should do, not what they should think.
4. Use concrete specifics. "Reduce vacancy rates by 40%" is remembered. "Improve your property performance" is forgotten.

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Extended Reference Files

• references/business-vocabulary.md — Formal vs informal vocabulary pairs (22 verb pairs, 14 other word pairs); data and statistics language (15 trend phrases, percentage-to-fraction conversion table, approximate figure qualifiers); linking words and transition phrases; market potential and growth phrases for proposals; discourse markers; business phrasal verbs

Human Authenticity Gate

All content produced using this skill must pass through the ai-content-humaniser before client delivery. AI-generated or AI-assisted copy must meet the Golden Rule: every output must look, feel, and sound as if it was crafted by the most skilled human writer with deep knowledge of the subject matter and the target audience. Generic, flat, or culturally misaligned output is not acceptable regardless of how efficiently it was produced.

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Integration with Other Skills

This skill is cross-cutting — it applies alongside:

• language-standards — tone, grammar, and formality per language (British English, formal French, East African Kiswahili)
• page-builder — implements these writing standards in Astro page content
• seo — headlines and niche vocabulary directly support search visibility
• brand-alignment — content voice must match brand identity
• sector-strategies — industry-specific content angles and trust signals