PostgreSQL interactive terminal (psql) reference and usage guide. Use this skill whenever the user mentions psql, PostgreSQL command-line client, backslash commands, meta-commands, \d commands, database inspection, SQL scripting in PostgreSQL, importing/exporting data with psql, \copy,...
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PostgreSQL interactive terminal (psql) reference and usage guide. Use this skill whenever the user mentions psql, PostgreSQL command-line client, backslash commands, meta-commands, \d commands, database inspection, SQL scripting in PostgreSQL, importing/exporting data with psql, \copy,...
psql is PostgreSQL's feature-rich interactive terminal. It lets you write and execute queries, inspect database objects, import/export data, script batch operations, and customize output formatting — all from the command line.
Prerequisites
Before using psql, verify it is installed and available:
# Check if psql is installed
psql --version
# If not found, install PostgreSQL client tools:# macOS (Homebrew)
brew install libpq
brew link --force libpq
# Ubuntu / Debiansudo apt install postgresql-client
# CentOS / RHELsudo yum install postgresql
# Alpine
apk add postgresql-client
# Windows — install PostgreSQL via the official installer or use WSL
psql ships as part of the postgresql-client package. The server (postgresql) is not required — you only need the client to connect to a remote PostgreSQL instance.
Quick Reference
Connecting
# 1. CLI flags
psql -h host -p port -U user -d dbname
# 2. Connection URI
# WARNING: Password in URI is visible in shell history and process listings.
# Prefer ~/.pgpass for production use (see method 4 below).
psql "postgresql://user:YOUR_PASSWORD@host:port/dbname"
# 3. Environment variables (no flags needed)
export PGHOST=localhost
export PGPORT=5432
export PGDATABASE=mydb
export PGUSER=postgres
# WARNING: PGPASSWORD is visible in process listings (e.g. `ps aux`).
# Use ~/.pgpass in production instead.
export PGPASSWORD=YOUR_PASSWORD
psql # picks up all params from env
# 4. ~/.pgpass file (RECOMMENDED for passwords)
# Format: hostname:port:database:username:password
touch ~/.pgpass && chmod 600 ~/.pgpass
# Then manually edit ~/.pgpass and add entries (avoids password in shell history):
# hostname:port:database:username:password
# Example: localhost:5432:mydb:postgres:YOUR_PASSWORD
psql -h localhost -U postgres -d mydb # no password prompt
# 5. Execute and exit
psql -f script.sql dbname # execute file then exit
psql -c "SELECT 1" dbname # run single command then exit
psql -1 -f migration.sql dbname # run in single transaction
# 6. Service connection (reads from pg_service.conf)
psql service=mydb_prod
# 7. Reconnect within a session
\c dbname # reconnect to different db
\c -reuse-previous=on sslmode=require # change only sslmode
\c "host=newhost port=5432 dbname=mydb" # conninfo string
On connection failure: interactive mode keeps the previous connection; script mode closes it and all subsequent database commands fail until the next successful \c.
Connection precedence: CLI flags > environment variables > pg_service.conf > defaults. Password precedence: connection string/password flag > PGPASSWORD env > ~/.pgpass. Use ~/.pgpass instead of PGPASSWORD in production — PGPASSWORD is visible in process listings (ps aux).
Object Inspection (\d family)
Command
Shows
\d
All tables, views, materialized views, sequences, foreign tables (equiv.\dtvmsE)
\copy is the go-to for day-to-day work — it uses the client's filesystem and permissions, not the server's.
\copy syntax detail:
-- FROM (import): sources are 'filename', program 'command', stdin, pstdin
\copy table FROM 'file.csv' WITH (FORMAT csv, HEADER true) [ WHERE condition ]
-- TO (export): destinations are 'filename', program 'command', stdout, pstdout
\copy table TO 'file.csv' WITH (FORMAT csv, HEADER true)
For \copy ... FROM stdin, data rows continue until a line containing only \. is read or EOF is reached. Use pstdin/pstdout to always read/write psql's actual stdin/stdout regardless of \o setting.
WARNING: The program option executes a shell command. If constructed from user input, it can lead to command injection. Avoid string concatenation with untrusted data.
Tip: \copy takes the entire rest of the line as arguments (no variable interpolation). When you need variable interpolation or multi-line queries, use SQL COPY ... TO STDOUT with \g instead:
-- This allows variable interpolation and multi-line queriesCOPY (SELECT*FROM :tableWHERE id > :min_id) TO STDOUT WITH (FORMAT csv, HEADER true) \g /tmp/output.csv
Output Formatting
\a Toggle aligned/unaligned output
\x Toggle expanded display (vertical vs table)
\t Toggle tuples only (no headers/footers)
\pset format FORMAT Set output format: aligned, asciidoc, csv, html, latex, latex-longtable, troff-ms, unaligned, wrapped
\pset border N Set border style (0-2; 3 for latex data-row lines)
\pset null STRING Display NULL as STRING
\pset pager [off] Control pager usage
\pset title 'TEXT' Set table title
\pset recordsep SEP Set record separator for unaligned mode
\pset fieldsep SEP Set field separator for unaligned mode (default: |)
\pset footer [on|off] Toggle row count footer
\pset columns N Set target width for wrapped format
\pset csv_fieldsep C Set CSV field separator (default: comma)
\pset numericlocale [on|off] Toggle locale-specific number formatting
\pset linestyle STYLE Set border style: ascii, old-ascii, unicode
\pset pager_min_lines N Minimum lines before pager activates
\pset xheader_width MODE Expanded header width: full, column, page, or N (PostgreSQL 17+)
\H Toggle HTML output (shortcut)
\C [title] Set table title (shortcut for \pset title)
\f [string] Set field separator (shortcut for \pset fieldsep)
\T table_options Set HTML table attributes (shortcut for \pset tableattr)
Large Objects
\lo_import filename [comment] Import file as large object, returns OID
\lo_export loid filename Export large object to file
\lo_list[x+] List all large objects
\lo_unlink loid Delete large object
Large object OIDs are persistent references. Always associate a human-readable comment on import. Use \lo_list to find OIDs.
Scripting & Control Flow
\i filename Execute file (relative to current working directory)
\ir filename Execute file (relative to the script being processed)
\o [filename] Redirect query output to file (or pipe with |cmd)
\o Stop output redirection
\qecho TEXT Output text to redirected output
\echo TEXT Output text to stdout (-n suppresses trailing newline)
\warn TEXT Output text to stderr
\! command Execute shell command
\cd [dir] Change working directory
\set NAME VALUE Set psql variable
\unset NAME Unset psql variable
\prompt [TEXT] NAME Prompt user for variable value
\getenv psql_var env_var Copy environment variable into psql variable
\setenv name [value] Set or unset environment variable
\p Print current query buffer
\w filename Write query buffer to file (or pipe with |cmd)
-- Conditional execution (useful in scripts)
\if EXPR
\echo 'true branch'
\else
\echo 'false branch'
\endif
\elif EXPR Else-if inside \if block
\if and \elif evaluate their argument as a boolean. Valid values (case-insensitive, unambiguous prefix matching): true, false, 1, 0, on, off, yes, no. Expressions that don't evaluate to true/false generate a warning and are treated as false. Variable references in skipped lines are NOT expanded.
Variables in SQL: :'varname' (quoted string value, escapes embedded quotes), :"varname" (double-quoted identifier), :'varname'::type (with cast), :varname (unquoted — can break SQL), :{?varname} (tests existence, expands to TRUE/FALSE).
Session Management
\c [dbname [user]] Connect to database (or reconnect)
\conninfo Display connection info (includes SSL info)
\encoding [ENC] Set or show client encoding
\password [USER] Change password (does NOT appear in command history or server log)
\q Quit psql. In a script file, only that script is terminated. In interactive mode, the entire program exits.
\r Reset (clear) the query buffer
\e Edit query buffer in external editor
\ef [FUNCNAME] Edit function definition
\ev [VIEWNAME] Edit view definition
\sf[+] FUNCNAME Show function definition (read-only)
\sv[+] VIEWNAME Show view definition (read-only)
\s [FILE] Print command history (or save to file)
\restrict KEY Enter restricted mode (only \unrestrict allowed)
\unrestrict KEY Exit restricted mode
\timing [on\|off] Toggle query execution time display (milliseconds)
\errverbose Repeat last error at maximum verbosity
\? [topic] Help: commands, options, or variables
\h [command] SQL syntax help (use * for all: \h *)
\copyright Show PostgreSQL copyright
interval — seconds between executions (default: 2, overridable via WATCH_INTERVAL variable)
count — stop after N executions
min_rows — stop if query returns fewer than N rows
If the query buffer is empty, \watch re-executes the most recently sent query.
Examples:
SELECT*FROM pg_stat_activity WHERE state ='active';
\watch interval=5 count=10-- every 5s, stop after 10 runsSELECTcount(*) FROM queue WHERE status ='pending';
\watch i=1 min_rows=1-- every 1s, stop when queue is empty
Exit Codes
Code
Meaning
0
Successful completion
1
A fatal error occurred (server error, connection failure, etc.)
2
Connection failed (could not connect to the server)
3
Script execution ended due to ON_ERROR_STOP
Security Considerations
Destructive Operations Checklist
Before running any destructive SQL, verify impact first:
-- BEFORE DELETE: check how many rows are affectedSELECTcount(*) FROM users WHEREcondition; -- verify scopeBEGIN;
DELETEFROM users WHEREcondition RETURNING *; -- see what was deleted-- ROLLBACK if wrong; COMMIT only after verification-- BEFORE DROP TABLE: verify no foreign keys depend on it
\d table_name -- check "Referenced by" section-- Consider renaming first: ALTER TABLE old RENAME TO old_backup;
Dangerous Commands Requiring Extra Caution
Command/Pattern
Risk
Mitigation
\gexec
Executes generated SQL without confirmation
Always inspect the generating query first by running it without \gexec; set ON_ERROR_STOP on
\! command
Arbitrary shell execution
No sandboxing; commands run with psql user's full privileges
\copy ... program 'cmd'
Shell command injection if filename comes from user input
Never concatenate untrusted input into the program string
\deu+
May display remote user passwords
Avoid using \deu+ in shared/piped output; use \deu without +
DELETE/UPDATE without WHERE
Affects every row in the table
Always use WHERE; wrap in BEGIN/ROLLBACK to preview
DROP DATABASE/TABLE
Irreversible data loss
Verify you're on the correct database with \conninfo first
Variable Interpolation Safety
psql variables are plain text substitution, not parameterized queries. This means:
-- UNSAFE: if :name contains "Robert'); DROP TABLE users;--" it will execute the injectionSELECT*FROM users WHERE name = :'name';
-- SAFER: use \prompt for interactive input (user sees what they typed)
\prompt 'Enter name: ' search_name
SELECT*FROM users WHERE name = :'search_name';
-- SAFEST: use \bind for programmatic parameter passing (truly parameterized)SELECT*FROM users WHERE name = $1;
\bind 'Robert' \g
The :'varname' form (quoted) is always safer than :varname (unquoted), because unquoted substitution can break SQL syntax or enable injection. Use :"varname" for identifiers (table/column names) — it properly escapes embedded double quotes.
When to Use What
Scenario
Recommended Command
Quick table inspection
\d table_name
List all tables in schema
\dt schema.*
Check indexes on a table
\di+ table_name* or \d table_name
Export query to CSV
\copy (SELECT ...) TO 'file.csv' WITH (FORMAT csv, HEADER)
Import CSV into table
\copy table FROM 'file.csv' WITH (FORMAT csv, HEADER)
Run migration script
psql -1 -f migration.sql dbname
Watch a live query
SELECT ... \watch 5
Pivot query results
SELECT ... \crosstabview
Script with conditional logic
\if :var ... \endif
Batch-insert many rows
Use \startpipeline / \endpipeline
SQL syntax help
\h CREATE TABLE
psql command help
\? commands
Check query execution time
\timing on then run query
Debug error details
\errverbose
Handle large result sets
\set FETCH_COUNT 1000 then run query
Auto-savepoint on errors
\set ON_ERROR_ROLLBACK on then use transactions
references/meta-commands-core.md — Core meta-commands: query buffer behavior, argument parsing rules, connection management, query execution, \copy syntax, and scripting commands (\if, \i, \o, backquote expansion). Read this when you need exact syntax or behavioral details for any backslash command.
references/meta-commands-inspection.md — Full \d command reference: all object inspection commands, modifiers (S, +, x), and pattern matching rules. Read this when exploring database schema or when the user needs to inspect tables, indexes, views, functions, privileges, etc.
references/meta-commands-formatting.md — Output formatting (\pset options and all format descriptions), pipeline mode, \watch, \crosstabview, and session management (\e, \ef, \ev, \timing, etc.). Read this when the user needs to control output format or use pipeline mode.
references/cli-options-and-variables.md — All CLI flags, environment variables, psql internal variables (AUTOCOMMIT, ON_ERROR_STOP, ECHO, FETCH_COUNT, etc.), prompt customization, ~/.psqlrc configuration, and SQL interpolation syntax. Read this when configuring psql startup behavior, writing scripts that depend on variable state, or customizing prompts.
references/tips-workflows.md — Practical workflows (exploring a new database, understanding table structure), scripting patterns (safe scripts, conditional execution, \gexec), output control for automation, and data import/export patterns. Read this when the user asks how to accomplish a specific task with psql.
references/tips-advanced.md — Performance tips, debugging/introspection (EXPLAIN, lock analysis, ECHO_HIDDEN), safety best practices (ON_ERROR_STOP, transaction patterns, search_path safety), and common gotchas. Read this for lock analysis, query plan inspection, and troubleshooting.
Important Notes
psql handles two comment styles differently:
C-style block comments (/* ... */): Passed to the server for processing and removal.
SQL-standard comments (--): Removed by psql itself, before sending to the server.
This distinction matters when writing scripts that rely on comment behavior — only SQL-standard comments are stripped client-side.
Variable Variables (Soft References)
psql allows indirect variable references through \set:
\set foo 'my_table'
\set bar :foo -- copies the value of foo into bar
\echo :bar -- outputs: my_table
While constructs like \set :foo 'something' are syntactically valid, they produce "soft links" that have limited practical use. For straightforward variable copying, use \set new_var :old_var.
Version Compatibility
psql works best with servers of the same or an older major version. Backslash commands (especially \d family) may fail with newer server versions. When connecting to multiple server versions, use the newest available psql client. The \d commands generally work with servers back to version 9.2.
