database

name	database
description	Design and implement production database systems. Covers schema design, migrations, query optimization, ORMs (Prisma, Drizzle, TypeORM), PostgreSQL/SQLite/MongoDB patterns, indexing strategies, connection pooling, and multi-tenant architectures. Use when designing schemas, writing queries, or setting up data access layers.

Database Engineering

Schema Design Principles

Naming Conventions

• Table names: singular PascalCase (User, OrderItem)
• Column names: camelCase (createdAt, userId)
• Foreign keys: {referencedTable}Id (userId, orderId)
• Indexes: idx_{table}_{column} (idx_user_email)
• Unique constraints: uq_{table}_{column} (uq_user_email)

Required Columns (every table)

id          UUID PRIMARY KEY DEFAULT gen_random_uuid(),
created_at  TIMESTAMPTZ NOT NULL DEFAULT now(),
updated_at  TIMESTAMPTZ NOT NULL DEFAULT now()

ID Strategy

Type	Use When
UUID v4	Public-facing IDs, distributed systems
CUID2	URL-safe, sortable, no collision
Auto-increment	Internal-only, sequential ordering needed
ULID	Sortable UUID alternative

Prisma Patterns

Schema with Relations

model User {
  id        String   @id @default(cuid())
  email     String   @unique
  name      String
  role      Role     @default(USER)
  posts     Post[]
  profile   Profile?
  createdAt DateTime @default(now())
  updatedAt DateTime @updatedAt

  @@index([email])
  @@index([createdAt])
}

model Post {
  id        String   @id @default(cuid())
  title     String
  content   String?
  published Boolean  @default(false)
  author    User     @relation(fields: [authorId], references: [id], onDelete: Cascade)
  authorId  String
  tags      Tag[]
  createdAt DateTime @default(now())
  updatedAt DateTime @updatedAt

  @@index([authorId])
  @@index([published, createdAt])
}

Optimized Queries

// Pagination with cursor (much faster than offset)
const posts = await prisma.post.findMany({
  take: 20,
  skip: 1,
  cursor: { id: lastPostId },
  orderBy: { createdAt: "desc" },
  select: { id: true, title: true, createdAt: true, author: { select: { name: true } } },
});

// Transaction for multi-table writes
const [user, team] = await prisma.$transaction([
  prisma.user.create({ data: userData }),
  prisma.team.update({ where: { id: teamId }, data: { memberCount: { increment: 1 } } }),
]);

// Upsert pattern
await prisma.user.upsert({
  where: { email },
  update: { name, updatedAt: new Date() },
  create: { email, name },
});

Drizzle ORM Patterns

Schema Definition

import { pgTable, text, timestamp, boolean, uuid, index } from "drizzle-orm/pg-core";

export const users = pgTable("user", {
  id: uuid("id").defaultRandom().primaryKey(),
  email: text("email").notNull().unique(),
  name: text("name").notNull(),
  createdAt: timestamp("created_at").defaultNow().notNull(),
  updatedAt: timestamp("updated_at").defaultNow().notNull(),
}, (table) => ({
  emailIdx: index("idx_user_email").on(table.email),
}));

Migration Workflow

1. Design schema changes
2. Generate: npx prisma migrate dev --name descriptive_name
3. Review generated SQL — NEVER skip this
4. Test with staging data
5. Deploy: npx prisma migrate deploy
6. NEVER edit committed migrations — create a new one

Query Optimization

Index Strategy

-- Composite index for multi-column WHERE clauses (order matters!)
CREATE INDEX idx_post_status_date ON post(published, created_at DESC);

-- Partial index for filtered queries
CREATE INDEX idx_active_users ON "user"(email) WHERE active = true;

-- Covering index (includes all queried columns)
CREATE INDEX idx_post_listing ON post(author_id, created_at DESC) INCLUDE (title);

N+1 Prevention

// BAD: N+1 queries
const users = await prisma.user.findMany();
for (const user of users) {
  const posts = await prisma.post.findMany({ where: { authorId: user.id } });
}

// GOOD: Eager loading
const users = await prisma.user.findMany({
  include: { posts: { take: 5, orderBy: { createdAt: "desc" } } },
});

Connection Pooling

// Use connection pooling in production
const prisma = new PrismaClient({
  datasources: { db: { url: process.env.DATABASE_URL } },
  log: process.env.NODE_ENV === "development" ? ["query", "warn", "error"] : ["error"],
});

// Graceful shutdown
process.on("beforeExit", async () => { await prisma.$disconnect(); });

Security Rules

• ALWAYS use parameterized queries — NEVER string concatenation
• NEVER expose internal IDs in URLs — use UUIDs
• Encrypt sensitive fields at rest (passwords, tokens, PII)
• Use row-level security for multi-tenant data
• Audit log all destructive operations (DELETE, UPDATE on sensitive tables)
• Validate all input with Zod BEFORE database operations