Estimates species trees under the multispecies coalescent from per-locus gene trees with the modern ASTER astral binary (ASTRAL-III/wASTRAL/ASTRAL-Pro), plus SVDQuartets, BPP, and StarBEAST2. Covers why a species tree is not a gene tree, why each locus has its own genealogy that disagrees by incomplete lineage sorting (ILS) even with zero error, why concatenation is statistically inconsistent and positively misleading in the anomaly zone where more loci converge on the wrong tree with full support, why gene-tree estimation error biases summary methods, that localPP is not bootstrap and ASTRAL branch lengths are coalescent units, and how minority-quartet symmetry separates ILS from introgression. Use when multi-locus discordance, rapid radiations, anomaly-zone risk, concordance-factor interpretation, or concatenation-vs-coalescent choice arise. Routes per-locus gene-tree inference and gCF/sCF to modern-tree-inference, dating to divergence-dating, orthology to comparative-genomics/ortholog-inference.
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Estimates species trees under the multispecies coalescent from per-locus gene trees with the modern ASTER astral binary (ASTRAL-III/wASTRAL/ASTRAL-Pro), plus SVDQuartets, BPP, and StarBEAST2. Covers why a species tree is not a gene tree, why each locus has its own genealogy that disagrees by incomplete lineage sorting (ILS) even with zero error, why concatenation is statistically inconsistent and positively misleading in the anomaly zone where more loci converge on the wrong tree with full support, why gene-tree estimation error biases summary methods, that localPP is not bootstrap and ASTRAL branch lengths are coalescent units, and how minority-quartet symmetry separates ILS from introgression. Use when multi-locus discordance, rapid radiations, anomaly-zone risk, concordance-factor interpretation, or concatenation-vs-coalescent choice arise. Routes per-locus gene-tree inference and gCF/sCF to modern-tree-inference, dating to divergence-dating, orthology to comparative-genomics/ortholog-inference.
Before using code patterns, verify installed versions match. If versions differ:
CLI: astral --version then astral --help to confirm flags
CLI: iqtree2 --version then iqtree2 --help to confirm flags
CLI: PAUP* prints its version at startup; BPP reads a control file
If code throws an error, introspect the installed version and adapt flags rather than retrying.
The modern binary is astral from the ASTER package; input is a file of gene-tree Newick strings, one tree per line. The classic-Java ASTRAL uses -t for ANNOTATION level, but the ASTER astral uses -t for THREADS and -u for annotation -- copying a Java -t 8 (quartet support) into ASTER silently requests 8 threads with no annotation. Confirm which interface is installed before scripting.
Coalescent Species-Tree Estimation -- A Species Tree Is Not a Gene Tree, and Concatenation Is Inconsistent in the Anomaly Zone
"Estimate the species tree from my multi-locus phylogenomic data" -> Treat the dataset as a distribution of genealogies, not one tree, and estimate the species tree most consistent with that distribution under the multispecies coalescent.
CLI: per-locus gene trees (modern-tree-inference) then astral -i gene_trees.nwk -o species.tre (ASTER)
CLI: gene and site concordance factors via iqtree2 ... --gcf ... --scfl (shared with modern-tree-inference)
Scope: choosing and running a coalescent species-tree method, contracting noisy gene trees, and reading discordance honestly. Per-locus gene-tree inference and model selection -> modern-tree-inference. Computing and plotting gCF/sCF -> modern-tree-inference, tree-visualization. Single-copy vs multi-copy orthology upstream -> comparative-genomics/ortholog-inference. Dated species trees -> divergence-dating. Rooting -> tree-manipulation.
The Single Most Important Modern Insight
A species tree is not a gene tree. Each locus has its own genealogy, and under the multispecies coalescent (MSC) those genealogies disagree with the species tree -- and with each other -- by incomplete lineage sorting (ILS) alone, with zero estimation error. The disagreement is not noise to average away; it is signal generated by the coalescent running inside the species tree. Three load-bearing facts:
The most probable gene tree can be the wrong species tree. When two short speciation events occur in quick succession, the single most common gene-tree topology is not the species tree -- this is the anomaly zone (Degnan and Rosenberg 2006), and such gene trees are anomalous gene trees. A plurality vote across loci then converges on the wrong tree.
Concatenation is statistically inconsistent and positively misleading under ILS. It pretends all loci share one tree and behaves like a vote dominated by the most-supported site pattern; in the anomaly zone that pattern reflects the anomalous genealogy, so adding loci raises bootstrap support for the wrong topology toward 100% (Kubatko and Degnan 2007; Roch and Steel 2015). More data makes the error more confident, not less. The support is the trap.
The honest question is the distribution, not the tree. Coalescent summary methods (ASTRAL family) stay consistent because they ask "what species tree is most consistent with having generated this gene-tree distribution under the MSC?" -- and they work at the quartet level, where the matching topology is always the plurality and no anomaly zone exists. Concatenation answers a different, wrong question, and both outputs look identically resolved and supported.
When Concatenation Fails
Concatenation is consistent and efficient only when ILS is low. It is actively wrong in three coupled regimes, all driven by short internodes measured in coalescent units (generations / 2Ne):
Short internodes plus large ancestral Ne. A short branch gives lineages little time to coalesce before the next deeper population, so many survive and sort randomly. For a rooted triple, P(gene tree matches) = 1 - (2/3)e^(-tau) in coalescent units tau: at tau = 1 about 25% of gene trees are discordant, at tau = 0.3 about 50%, at tau = 0.1 about 60%. Large Ne shortens tau for the same number of years, inflating ILS.
The anomaly zone (Degnan and Rosenberg 2006). With two or more short successive internal branches (both well under ~1, especially under ~0.1-0.2 coalescent units), the most probable gene tree differs from the species tree. The zone grows with taxon number and with shorter, more clustered internodes.
Rapid radiations. Successive speciation in quick succession is built from exactly those short internodes, so radiations routinely show a majority of gene trees conflicting with the species tree. This is the canonical case for a coalescent method.
Method Taxonomy
Method
Citation
Type / role
When
ASTRAL-III (astral)
Zhang 2018
Summary, quartet-based; consistent under MSC; localPP, polytomy test, q1/q2/q3
Default genome-scale species tree from single-copy gene trees
Small high-stakes datasets; species delimitation; introgression (MSci)
StarBEAST2
Ogilvie 2017
Full Bayesian co-estimation of species tree, gene trees, dates
Dated species tree with full posterior uncertainty
Concatenation (IQ-TREE/RAxML)
--
Supermatrix ML; assumes ONE tree
Low ILS / high gCF only; never in or near the anomaly zone
Summary methods take estimated gene trees as input and assume they are true -- the central caveat (see failure modes). Site-based (SVDQuartets) and full-likelihood (BPP, StarBEAST2) skip that assumption but pay in scale: roughly tens of taxa for the full-likelihood methods. The speed/scale order (most scalable first) is concatenation < ASTRAL/wASTRAL < SVDQuartets < StarBEAST2 < BPP; model completeness runs the opposite way. Pick the most scalable method whose assumptions the data do not badly violate. Introgression detection (HyDe, Blischak 2018, Syst Biol; QuIBL, Edelman 2019, Science; the D-statistic) lives downstream of the symmetry diagnostic below.
Concatenation vs Coalescent Decision
Situation / diagnostic
Recommended
Low ILS: long internodes (>>1 coalescent unit), gCF high (>~70), few discordant gene trees
Concatenation fine; coalescent agrees and adds no advantage
Moderate ILS: gCF ~50-70, some short branches
Run wASTRAL; check gCF/sCF and the polytomy test on short branches
High ILS / rapid radiation: short successive internodes, gCF <50 (esp. <33), q2 ~ q3
Coalescent REQUIRED; concatenation is anomaly-zone wrong; quartet consistency holds
Low per-locus signal / unreliable gene trees
wASTRAL or contract gene-tree branches <10% support; or SVDQuartets (no gene trees); BPP integrates uncertainty
Paralog-rich gene families
ASTRAL-Pro (no pre-orthology); concatenation cannot use them
Need dated tree or delimitation
StarBEAST2 (dating) or BPP (delimitation); coalescent-unit lengths are not time
Suspected introgression (q2 != q3, D significant)
Model the reticulation (HyDe/QuIBL/BPP-MSci/PhyloNet); a tree masks it
Do not reflexively coalescent-everything: where ILS is low the two trees agree and concatenation pools weak per-locus signal robustly. The deliverable is concordance, not a single best method -- run both, compute gCF/sCF, and trust the coalescent tree exactly where the two disagree on low-gCF branches.
Estimate the Species Tree from Gene Trees
Goal: Turn per-locus gene trees into a species tree that is consistent under the MSC, after removing gene-tree noise that would bias the quartet counts.
Approach: Infer one gene tree per locus with branch support (modern-tree-inference), contract branches below ~10% support to polytomies (which ASTRAL handles correctly), then run wASTRAL as the primary estimate and astral for the classic localPP / polytomy-test workflow.
# Per-locus gene trees with support live upstream in modern-tree-inference:# iqtree2 -S loci_dir -m MFP -B 1000 -T AUTO --prefix loci # one tree per locus# Contract gene-tree branches below 10% support (Newick tools / nw_ed) -> polytomies,# then concatenate into one file, one Newick per line:# cat loci/*.contracted.treefile > gene_trees.nwk# Primary estimate: wASTRAL weights quartets by gene-tree support+length (noisy gene trees)
wastral -i gene_trees.nwk -o species_wastral.tre 2> species_wastral.log
# Classic ASTRAL-III for localPP + polytomy test. In ASTER, -t is THREADS, -u is annotation:
astral -t 8 -i gene_trees.nwk -o species.tre 2> species.log # -t 8 = 8 threads here
astral -u 2 -i gene_trees.nwk -o species_annot.tre # full localPP + q1/q2/q3 for all 3 resolutions
astral --root OUTGROUP -i gene_trees.nwk -o species_rooted.tre # rooting improves branch-length estimation# Multi-copy gene families (no pre-orthology) -> ASTRAL-Pro:
astral-pro -i family_trees.nwk -o species_pro.tre
ASTRAL returns an UNROOTED tree; root with an outgroup afterward. Branch lengths are in coalescent units (not time, not substitutions), and tip lengths are undefined in that mode. The classic Java astral.5.7.8.jar inverts the flags: there -t is the annotation level (-t 2 full, -t 8 quartet support, -t 10 polytomy test) and there is no -u.
Compute and Read Concordance Factors
Goal: Replace a single bootstrap/localPP per branch with how much of the actual data agrees, and read ILS-vs-introgression off the quartet symmetry.
Approach: Compute gene and site concordance factors against the species tree, then inspect the two minority quartet frequencies (q2, q3) at each contested branch.
# gCF = % of decisive gene trees containing a branch; sCF = % of decisive sites supporting it
iqtree2 -te species.tre --gcf gene_trees.nwk -s concat.fasta --scfl 100 --prefix cf # -te fixes the topology for likelihood sCF# cf.cf.tree carries gCF/sCF on node labels; cf.cf.stat has per-branch q1/q2/q3 counts
Then read each contested branch: under pure ILS the two minority topologies are equally probable (q2 ~ q3); introgression breaks that symmetry by inflating the one matching the direction of gene flow. A high-bootstrap branch with gCF ~ 25 is a branch where the data are screaming disagreement that the bootstrap hides.
Interpreting Concordance and Discordance
gCF / sCF (Minh 2020) are the honest support. Bootstrap and localPP saturate near their ceiling at genome scale even when most loci disagree; gCF/sCF report the actual conflict. Report them on every phylogenomic tree.
localPP (Sayyari and Mirarab 2016) is NOT a bootstrap. It is a coalescent posterior computed from the quartet frequencies around a branch. localPP = 1.0 is common and expected on resolved branches and does not mean "100 of 100 bootstraps"; localPP ~ 0.33 means the three quartet resolutions are tied (no resolution).
The polytomy test (Sayyari and Mirarab 2018) is the principled alternative to staring at low support. It tests the null q1 = q2 = q3 (an effectively simultaneous speciation); failing to reject means a resolved bifurcation cannot be claimed -- collapse the branch.
Quartet symmetry separates ILS from introgression. Symmetric minority quartets (q2 ~ q3) = ILS; handle with a coalescent tree. Asymmetric (q2 != q3, significant D-statistic / ABBA-BABA, HyDe gamma != 0, or QuIBL favoring the introgression component) = gene flow; a bifurcating tree cannot represent it -- model the reticulation. Confirm the asymmetry before invoking introgression.
Per-Method Failure Modes
Gene-Tree Estimation Error Biasing ASTRAL
Trigger: Short, low-information loci (e.g. <500 bp exons) fed to ASTRAL/wASTRAL as if their gene trees were truth.
Mechanism: MSC consistency assumes the input gene trees are correct; estimation error is a non-coalescent noise source that biases quartet counts in finite samples and can make the coalescent tree worse than concatenation.
Symptom: Coalescent tree noisier or worse than concatenation; unstable across locus subsets; low localPP everywhere; gCF far below sCF.
Fix: Contract gene-tree branches below ~10% bootstrap before ASTRAL (they become polytomies that contribute no spurious quartet similarity); better, use wASTRAL (continuous weighting); or drop to SVDQuartets (no gene trees) or BPP (integrates gene-tree uncertainty).
Treating localPP as Bootstrap Support
Trigger: Reporting ASTRAL branch labels as bootstrap proportions, or demanding ">95% bootstrap" of an ASTRAL tree.
Mechanism: localPP is a coalescent posterior from quartet frequencies, on a different scale; it saturates at 1.0 on resolved branches.
Symptom: Over-confident reading of localPP = 1.0 as "100/100 BS"; ignoring that localPP ~ 0.33 is a near-tie.
Fix: Interpret localPP on its own scale; report gCF/sCF for honest conflict; use the polytomy test to decide whether to collapse a branch.
Concatenating In or Near the Anomaly Zone
Trigger: Rapid radiation with several short successive internodes, analyzed by supermatrix ML with "100% bootstrap" reported as resolution.
Mechanism: Concatenation is inconsistent and positively misleading under high ILS; the plurality genealogy is anomalous, so adding loci converges on the wrong tree with rising support.
Symptom: Rock-solid bootstrap but gCF < 33 on focal branches; concatenated and coalescent trees disagree exactly there.
Fix: Use wASTRAL/ASTRAL (quartet-level consistency holds in the anomaly zone); report gCF/sCF; trust the coalescent topology on low-gCF branches; consider a true near-polytomy via the polytomy test.
Ignoring Paralogy
Trigger: Discarding all multi-copy families to feed single-copy ASTRAL, or treating paralogs as orthologs.
Mechanism: Standard ASTRAL assumes single-copy gene trees; mis-assigned paralogs inject quartets reflecting the duplication history, not speciation.
Symptom: Massive data loss (most families dropped), or spurious clades / inflated discordance from hidden paralogy.
Fix: Use ASTRAL-Pro on the multi-copy gene-family trees (it models orthology/paralogy without pre-orthology); audit orthology upstream (comparative-genomics/ortholog-inference).
Mistaking Introgression for ILS (or Vice Versa)
Trigger: Assuming all discordance is ILS and fitting a tree, OR over-calling gene flow from any discordance.
Mechanism: ILS produces symmetric minority topologies (q2 ~ q3); introgression breaks the symmetry. A bifurcating tree cannot represent reticulate history.
Symptom: Asymmetric q2/q3 on a discordant branch; significant D-statistic / HyDe gamma; QuIBL favoring the introgression component -- but a tree-only analysis hides it.
Fix: Test minority-quartet symmetry (D-statistic / ABBA-BABA, HyDe, QuIBL, ASTRAL q1/q2/q3) before interpreting; if asymmetric, model the reticulation rather than forcing a tree.
Gene-tree branch support to contract before ASTRAL
< ~10% bootstrap (or use wASTRAL)
Collapse to polytomy to cut gene-tree-error bias
ASTRAL practice / Zhang and Mirarab 2022
gCF
< 50
Most loci disagree; distrust concatenation here
Minh 2020
gCF
< 33
Near the ILS coin-flip floor; effectively unresolved
Minh 2020
sCF
~33
Random-resolution floor (three quartet resolutions); no site signal
Minh 2020
localPP
~0.95+ to call "well-supported"
Strong coalescent support, NOT a bootstrap
Sayyari and Mirarab 2016
localPP
~0.33
Three quartet resolutions tied; candidate polytomy
Sayyari and Mirarab 2016
Polytomy test p
fail to reject (e.g. p > 0.05)
Cannot claim a resolved bifurcation; collapse
Sayyari and Mirarab 2018
The gCF/sCF cutoffs of 50/33 are practical heuristics relative to the dataset (a branch at gCF 45 amid branches at 90 is the weak one), not significance tests. The 10% contraction is a widely-used default, not a derived optimum; wASTRAL removes the need to pick it.
Common Errors
Error / symptom
Cause
Solution
ASTER astral ignores the annotation flag
Used Java -t 8 (annotation); ASTER -t is threads
Use -u 2 in ASTER; -t 8 only in classic Java
Coalescent tree worse than concatenation
Noisy gene trees fed in as truth
Contract <10% branches; use wASTRAL; or SVDQuartets
localPP = 1.0 reported as bootstrap
localPP is a coalescent posterior on its own scale
Report gCF/sCF; do not apply a BS cutoff
Coalescent-unit branch read as time
Branch lengths are coalescent units, tips undefined
State units; for dates use StarBEAST2 / divergence-dating
High bootstrap, low gCF, called resolved
Concatenation in the anomaly zone
Run coalescent; trust it on low-gCF branches; polytomy test
Degnan JH, Rosenberg NA. 2006. Discordance of species trees with their most likely gene trees. PLoS Genetics 2(5):e68.
Degnan JH, Rosenberg NA. 2009. Gene tree discordance, phylogenetic inference and the multispecies coalescent. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 24(6):332-340.
Kubatko LS, Degnan JH. 2007. Inconsistency of phylogenetic estimates from concatenated data under coalescence. Systematic Biology 56(1):17-24.
Roch S, Steel M. 2015. Likelihood-based tree reconstruction on a concatenation of aligned sequence data sets can be statistically inconsistent. Theoretical Population Biology 100:56-62.
Mirarab S, Reaz R, Bayzid MS, Zimmermann T, Swenson MS, Warnow T. 2014. ASTRAL: genome-scale coalescent-based species tree estimation. Bioinformatics 30(17):i541-i548.
Zhang C, Rabiee M, Sayyari E, Mirarab S. 2018. ASTRAL-III: polynomial time species tree reconstruction from partially resolved gene trees. BMC Bioinformatics 19(Suppl 6):153.
Zhang C, Mirarab S. 2022. Weighting by gene tree uncertainty improves accuracy of quartet-based species trees. Molecular Biology and Evolution 39(12):msac215.
Zhang C, Scornavacca C, Molloy EK, Mirarab S. 2020. ASTRAL-Pro: quartet-based species-tree inference despite paralogy. Molecular Biology and Evolution 37(11):3292-3307.
Zhang C, Nielsen R, Mirarab S. 2025. ASTER: a package for large-scale phylogenomic reconstructions. Molecular Biology and Evolution 42(8):msaf172.
Sayyari E, Mirarab S. 2016. Fast coalescent-based computation of local branch support from quartet frequencies. Molecular Biology and Evolution 33(7):1654-1668.
Sayyari E, Mirarab S. 2018. Testing for polytomies in phylogenetic species trees using quartet frequencies. Genes 9(3):132.
Chifman J, Kubatko L. 2014. Quartet inference from SNP data under the coalescent model. Bioinformatics 30(23):3317-3324.
Flouri T, Jiao X, Rannala B, Yang Z. 2018. Species tree inference with BPP using genomic sequences and the multispecies coalescent. Molecular Biology and Evolution 35(10):2585-2593.
Ogilvie HA, Bouckaert RR, Drummond AJ. 2017. StarBEAST2 brings faster species tree inference and accurate estimates of substitution rates. Molecular Biology and Evolution 34(8):2101-2114.
Minh BQ, Hahn MW, Lanfear R. 2020. New methods to calculate concordance factors for phylogenomic datasets. Molecular Biology and Evolution 37(9):2727-2733.
Blischak PD, Chifman J, Wolfe AD, Kubatko LS. 2018. HyDe: a Python package for genome-scale hybridization detection. Systematic Biology 67(5):821-829.
Edelman NB, Frandsen PB, Miyagi M, et al. 2019. Genomic architecture and introgression shape a butterfly radiation. Science 366(6465):594-599.
Related Skills
modern-tree-inference - per-locus ML gene trees (ASTRAL input) and gCF/sCF computation
bayesian-inference - full Bayesian co-estimation; StarBEAST2 for species tree plus dates
divergence-dating - turning a coalescent-unit species tree into a dated tree
tree-io - reading and writing the Newick gene-tree files ASTRAL consumes
comparative-genomics/ortholog-inference - single-copy vs multi-copy decision upstream (ASTRAL vs ASTRAL-Pro)
