concurrency

name	concurrency
description	Swift 6 concurrency patterns. Use when working with async/await, actors, MainActor isolation, or Sendable conformance.

Skill: Concurrency

Guide for Swift 6 concurrency patterns used in this project.

When to use this skill

• Work with async/await code
• Create actors for thread-safe state
• Understand MainActor isolation
• Fix Sendable conformance issues

---

Project Configuration

This project uses Swift 6 with special build settings:

Setting	Value	Effect
SWIFT_APPROACHABLE_CONCURRENCY	YES	Automatic Sendable inference
SWIFT_DEFAULT_ACTOR_ISOLATION	MainActor	All types MainActor-isolated by default

Exception: ChallengeNetworking overrides SWIFT_DEFAULT_ACTOR_ISOLATION to nonisolated at the target level. All networking types are nonisolated by default — no nonisolated annotations needed. See the Networking README.

---

Default MainActor Isolation

With SWIFT_DEFAULT_ACTOR_ISOLATION = MainActor, all types are MainActor-isolated by default.

What this means

• No need for explicit @MainActor on ViewModels, Views, or UI-related types
• Types that need to run off the main thread must opt out using nonisolated

// These are automatically MainActor-isolated
final class CharacterListViewModel { }  // No @MainActor needed
struct CharacterListView: View { }       // No @MainActor needed

---

Approachable Concurrency (Automatic Sendable)

With SWIFT_APPROACHABLE_CONCURRENCY = YES, the compiler automatically infers Sendable conformance:

// This struct is automatically Sendable (all properties are Sendable)
struct User: Equatable {
    let id: Int
    let name: String
}

// No need to write:
// struct User: Equatable, Sendable { ... }

Rules:

• Structs with all Sendable properties are implicitly Sendable
• Enums with Sendable associated values are implicitly Sendable
• Do not explicitly mark types as Sendable (it's inferred)

---

Opting Out of MainActor Isolation

Types that need to run off the main thread must explicitly opt out.

Actors (custom isolation domain)

Actors have their own isolation domain (not MainActor):

// Actors are NOT MainActor-isolated
actor CharacterMemoryDataSource {
    private var storage: [Int: CharacterDTO] = [:]

    func save(_ character: CharacterDTO) {
        storage[character.id] = character
    }

    func get(id: Int) -> CharacterDTO? {
        storage[id]
    }
}

Framework subclasses called from background threads

// URLProtocol subclasses are called from background threads
final class URLProtocolMock: URLProtocol, @unchecked Sendable {
    nonisolated(unsafe) static var requestHandler: ((URLRequest) throws -> (URLResponse, Data?))?

    nonisolated override init(
        request: URLRequest,
        cachedResponse: CachedURLResponse?,
        client: (any URLProtocolClient)?
    ) {
        super.init(request: request, cachedResponse: cachedResponse, client: client)
    }

    nonisolated override class func canInit(with request: URLRequest) -> Bool { true }
    nonisolated override class func canonicalRequest(for request: URLRequest) -> URLRequest { request }
    nonisolated override func startLoading() { /* ... */ }
    nonisolated override  () {}
}

UI Test classes

// XCTestCase subclasses need nonisolated for XCTest compatibility
nonisolated final class CharacterFlowUITests: XCTestCase {
    override func setUpWithError() throws {
        continueAfterFailure = false
    }

    @MainActor
    func testCharacterFlow() throws {
        let app = XCUIApplication()
        app.launch()
        // ...
    }
}

nonisolated types (pure data types)

Types that are pure data with no UI concern should be nonisolated:

// Internal networking envelope — nonisolated via module default (ChallengeNetworking)
struct GraphQLResponse<T: Decodable>: Decodable {
    let data: T?
    let errors: [GraphQLResponseError]?
}

All members (properties, synthesized conformances) become nonisolated automatically.

Note: In ChallengeNetworking, types are nonisolated by default (module-level override). In other modules, use the nonisolated keyword explicitly.

Nonisolated Data/Domain layer

The entire Data and Domain layer uses explicit nonisolated annotations. This ensures Data layer work (network I/O, JSON decoding, mapping) runs off MainActor when combined with @concurrent:

// Contract — nonisolated protocol with @concurrent
nonisolated protocol CharacterRepositoryContract: Sendable {
    @concurrent func getCharacter(identifier: Int, cachePolicy: CachePolicy) async throws(CharacterError) -> Character
}

// Implementation — nonisolated struct with @concurrent
nonisolated struct CharacterRepository: CharacterRepositoryContract {
    private let remoteDataSource: CharacterRemoteDataSourceContract
    private let memoryDataSource: CharacterLocalDataSourceContract
    private let mapper = CharacterMapper()
    private let errorMapper = CharacterErrorMapper()

    @concurrent func getCharacter(identifier: Int, cachePolicy: CachePolicy) async throws(CharacterError) -> Character {
        do {
            let dto = try  cachePolicy.fetch(
                fromRemote: {   remoteDataSource.fetchCharacter(identifier: identifier) },
                fromCache: {  memoryDataSource.getCharacter(identifier: identifier) },
                saveToCache: {  memoryDataSource.saveCharacter() }
            )
             mapper.map(dto)
        }  {
             errorMapper.map((error: error, identifier: identifier))
        }
    }
}


  :  {
     id: 
     name: 
}


  : , ,  {
     loadFailed(description:   )
     notFound(identifier: )
}

  :  {  }

Key rules:

• nonisolated on a type does NOT propagate to extensions — each extension needs its own nonisolated
• Public nonisolated types crossing module boundaries need explicit Sendable
• UseCases stay MainActor — they're the boundary between Presentation and Data

@concurrent for off-MainActor execution

Reference: SE-0461 — Async function isolation | Improving app responsiveness

@concurrent guarantees an async function runs on the generic executor (thread pool), not on any actor. Use it for CPU-intensive work like JSON decoding + network I/O.

public protocol HTTPClientContract: Sendable {
    @concurrent func request<T: Decodable>(_ endpoint: Endpoint) async throws -> T
    @concurrent func request(_ endpoint: Endpoint) async throws -> Data
}

public protocol GraphQLClientContract: Sendable {
    @concurrent func execute<T: Decodable>(_ operation: GraphQLOperation) async throws -> T
}

When to use:

• Transport clients (HTTPClient, GraphQLClient) — JSON decode + network I/O happen here
• Repository contracts and implementations — ensures Data layer runs off MainActor
• Remote DataSource contracts and implementations — defensive guarantee of background execution

When NOT to use:

• Actors — @concurrent cannot be used with actor isolation (SE-0461)
• UseCases — trivial coordination, stay MainActor
• CachePolicy.fetch — nonisolated method on enum, delegates to @concurrent repos/datasources

Implementation notes:

• In modules with MainActor default: private helpers called from @concurrent methods must be nonisolated
• ChallengeNetworking uses nonisolated default — helpers, types, and inits are nonisolated automatically
• Types constructed inside @concurrent methods need nonisolated init (e.g., Endpoint — already nonisolated via module default)

Why both nonisolated and @concurrent are required

They are complementary — each solves a different problem:

Annotation	Purpose	Without it
nonisolated	Removes MainActor isolation from the type/method	@concurrent on a MainActor-isolated method is a compile error — contradicts "runs on MainActor"
@concurrent	Executes on the cooperative thread pool	nonisolated async inherits the caller's executor (SE-0338) — runs on MainActor if called from MainActor

The flow with SWIFT_DEFAULT_ACTOR_ISOLATION = MainActor:

MainActor (default)
    → nonisolated         → inherits caller's executor (SE-0338)
    → nonisolated + @concurrent → runs on thread pool (SE-0461)

nonisolated is the prerequisite for @concurrent. You cannot use @concurrent without first removing the actor isolation.

Types without async methods (DTOs, Mappers, Domain Models) also need nonisolated because:

• They are created/used inside @concurrent methods (repos, datasources)
• A MainActor-isolated init cannot be called from a @concurrent context
• Without nonisolated, passing them between contexts requires unnecessary actor hops

// Without nonisolated on CharacterMapper:
@concurrent func getCharacter(...) async throws -> Character {
    let dto = try await remoteDataSource.fetchCharacter(...)
    return mapper.map(dto)  // mapper.map() is MainActor-isolated → compile error
}

---

State Management

Use @Observable (iOS 17+), not ObservableObject:

// REQUIRED - Use @Observable
@Observable
final class CharacterListViewModel {
    var state: CharacterListViewState = .idle
}

// PROHIBITED - Never use ObservableObject/@Published
final class CharacterListViewModel: ObservableObject {
    @Published var state: CharacterListViewState = .idle
}

Rules:

• Stateful ViewModels use @Observable macro (stateless ViewModels with no observable state are plain final class)
• No ObservableObject protocol conformance
• No @Published property wrappers
• Views use @State to hold @Observable instances

---

Prohibited Patterns

The following patterns are prohibited in this project:

// PROHIBITED - Never use these patterns
DispatchQueue.main.async { ... }
DispatchQueue.global().async { ... }
completionHandler: @escaping (Result<T, Error>) -> Void
ObservableObject / @Published  // Use @Observable instead
NotificationCenter for async events
Combine for new code

---

Required Patterns

Always use modern Swift concurrency:

// REQUIRED - Use async/await
func fetchData() async throws -> Data {
    let (data, _) = try await URLSession.shared.data(from: url)
    return data
}

// REQUIRED - Use Task for bridging
Task {
    await performAsyncWork()
}

// REQUIRED - Use actors for shared mutable state
actor DataStore {
    private var cache: [String: Data] = [:]

    func store(_ data: Data, forKey key: String) {
        cache[key] = data
    }
}

---

Common Patterns by Type

Type	Isolation	Notes
View	MainActor (default)	No annotation needed
ViewModel	MainActor (default)	No annotation needed
UseCase	MainActor (default)	No annotation needed
Container	MainActor (default)	No annotation needed
Repository contract	nonisolated protocol	@concurrent on methods, explicit Sendable
Repository impl	nonisolated struct	@concurrent on methods
RemoteDataSource contract	nonisolated protocol	@concurrent on methods, explicit Sendable
RemoteDataSource impl	nonisolated struct	@concurrent on methods
DTO	nonisolated struct	Pure data, Decodable + Equatable
Mapper	nonisolated struct	Stateless, MapperContract
Domain Model	nonisolated struct	Pure data with behavior
Domain Error	nonisolated enum	nonisolated on extensions too
CachePolicy	nonisolated enum	Shared across features; carries fetch behavior via sending closures
HTTPClient / GraphQLClient	nonisolated (module default)	@concurrent on public methods
Endpoint / HTTPMethod	nonisolated (module default)	Pure data types, keep explicit Sendable for cross-module use
GraphQLResponse	nonisolated (module default)	Pure data envelope
MemoryDataSource	actor

---

Actor Reentrancy

Reference: SE-0306 — Actors

Swift actors are reentrant by design. When an actor-isolated function suspends at an await, other tasks can execute on the same actor before the original function resumes. This is called interleaving.

The problem

Every await inside an actor is a suspension point where actor state can change:

// DANGEROUS — reentrancy can break invariants
actor ImageDiskCache: ImageDiskCacheContract {
    private let fileSystem: FileSystemContract // `: Actor`

    func image(for url: URL) async -> UIImage? {
        guard let data = try? await fileSystem.contents(at: fileURL) else {
            return nil
        }
        // ⚠️ SUSPENSION POINT — another task can run here (e.g., eviction deletes the file)
        guard let attributes = try? await fileSystem.fileAttributes(at: fileURL) else {
            // File was deleted between the two awaits!
            return nil
        }
        // ...
    }
}

Between two await calls on the same actor, another task (e.g., eviction) can interleave and modify the actor's state or the underlying filesystem. This leads to:

• Stale reads: data read before suspension may not match state after resumption
• Broken invariants: multi-step operations are no longer atomic
• Redundant or conflicting operations: concurrent evictions interleaving

The solution: eliminate suspension points

If an actor's dependency is Sendable with nonisolated methods instead of an Actor, its calls execute synchronously within the caller actor's isolation — no await, no suspension, no interleaving:

// SAFE — zero suspension points, every method is an atomic critical section
protocol FileSystemContract: Sendable {
    nonisolated func contents(at url: URL) throws -> Data
    nonisolated func write(_ data: Data, to url: URL) throws
    // ...
}

struct FileSystem: FileSystemContract {
    // FileManager is not Sendable but is documented as thread-safe.
    // Safe to use from any isolation domain without synchronization.
    nonisolated(unsafe) private let fileManager: FileManager

    nonisolated func contents(at url: URL) throws -> Data {
        try Data(contentsOf: url)
    }
    // ...
}

actor ImageDiskCache: ImageDiskCacheContract {
    private let fileSystem: FileSystemContract

    func ( : ) -> ? { 
          data   fileSystem.contents(at: fileURL)  {   }
        
          attributes   fileSystem.fileAttributes(at: fileURL)  {  }
        
    }
}

When to use each pattern

Pattern	Use when	Example
: Actor protocol	Dependency has its own mutable state to protect	MemoryDataSource, UserDefaultsDataSource
: Sendable + nonisolated	Dependency is a stateless wrapper around a thread-safe API	FileSystem (wraps FileManager)

nonisolated is mandatory on protocol methods

With SWIFT_DEFAULT_ACTOR_ISOLATION = MainActor, protocol methods without nonisolated are MainActor-isolated by default. Calling them from a non-MainActor actor requires await for the MainActor hop — reintroducing suspension points.

nonisolated(unsafe) on the property does NOT bypass method isolation — it only affects property access:

actor ImageDiskCache {
    nonisolated(unsafe) private let fileSystem: FileSystemContract
    // ❌ fileSystem.contents(at:) is still MainActor-isolated per protocol
    // ❌ Compiler error: "Call to main actor-isolated instance method in a synchronous actor-isolated context"
}

Thread-safe non-Sendable types

FileManager and UserDefaults are thread-safe but not Sendable. Use nonisolated(unsafe) to store them:

struct FileSystem: FileSystemContract {
    // FileManager is not Sendable but is documented as thread-safe.
    // Safe to use from any isolation domain without synchronization.
    nonisolated(unsafe) private let fileManager: FileManager
}

Mock pattern for Sendable protocols with nonisolated methods

final class FileSystemMock: FileSystemContract, @unchecked Sendable {
    nonisolated(unsafe) var files: [URL: Data] = [:]
    nonisolated(unsafe) var writeError: (any Error)?
    nonisolated(unsafe) private(set) var writeCallCount = 0

    @MainActor init() {}

    nonisolated func write(_ data: Data, to url: URL) throws {
        writeCallCount += 1
        if let writeError { throw writeError }
        files[url] = data
    }
}

This is safe in practice because the actor serializes all calls to the mock. Tests configure the mock on MainActor (setup) and verify on MainActor (assertions) — no concurrent access.

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Checklist

• Async functions use async throws (not completion handlers)
• Actors are used for shared mutable state
• No DispatchQueue usage
• No explicit Sendable conformance (it's inferred) — exception: public nonisolated types crossing module boundaries keep explicit Sendable because inference doesn't cross modules
• No explicit @MainActor on ViewModels/Views (it's default)
• Data/Domain layer types use nonisolated keyword (DTOs, Mappers, Models, Errors, Repos, Remote DS)
• Repository and Remote DataSource contract methods use @concurrent
• nonisolated extensions have their own nonisolated keyword (not inherited from type)
• CachePolicy.fetch closures use sending modifier
• Actor methods with multiple await calls reviewed for reentrancy risks
• Stateless wrappers around thread-safe APIs use : Sendable + nonisolated (not : Actor)
• Transport client methods use @concurrent for off-MainActor execution