mobility-and-transport

name

mobility-and-transport

description

Comprehensive mobility and transport planning for urban design including trip generation, mode split targets, street network connectivity, transit planning, cycling network design, pedestrian accessibility, freight and servicing strategy, parking demand management, and traffic impact assessment. Use when the user asks about transport planning, trip generation, mode split, traffic impact, transit catchment, cycling network, pedestrian access, freight servicing, mobility hubs, first-last mile, level of service, vehicle-km traveled, or any movement and accessibility question beyond individual street cross-section design. Also use for transport demand management (TDM), multimodal integration, or mobility frameworks for masterplan transport chapters.

Mobility and Transport Planning Skill

This skill provides a comprehensive transport and mobility planning framework for urban design at the neighborhood, district, and city scales. It draws on ITE Trip Generation (11th Edition), TfL transport assessment guidance, ITDP standards, NACTO transit street guidance, Dutch cycling infrastructure design manuals (CROW), and global best practices from cities achieving high non-car mode shares.

The goal is to ensure every urban design proposal includes a robust, multimodal transport strategy that prioritizes walking, cycling, and transit over private car use, while handling freight and servicing efficiently.

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1. Transport Demand Estimation

1.1 Trip Generation by Land Use (ITE 11th Edition Basis)

Use the following rates for preliminary transport demand estimation. Rates are per unit (dwelling, 100m2 GFA, room, seat) and represent daily person-trips (all modes). Apply mode split factors (Section 2) to convert to vehicle trips.

Residential

Type	Unit	Daily Person-Trips	AM Peak	PM Peak
Detached house	per dwelling	9.4	0.74	1.00
Townhouse / row house	per dwelling	7.2	0.56	0.76
Low-rise apartment (1-3 floors)	per dwelling	6.6	0.51	0.62
Mid-rise apartment (4-10 floors)	per dwelling	5.4	0.36	0.44
High-rise apartment (11+ floors)	per dwelling	4.2	0.30	0.36
Student housing	per bed	3.6	0.28	0.32
Senior housing	per unit	3.0	0.20	0.24

Commercial / Office

Type	Unit	Daily Person-Trips	AM Peak	PM Peak
General office	per 100m2 GFA	11.0	1.56	1.49
Medical office	per 100m2 GFA	36.1	2.78	3.46
Business park	per 100m2 GFA	12.4	1.73	1.74
Co-working / flexible	per 100m2 GFA	14.0	1.90	1.80

Retail

Type	Unit	Daily Person-Trips	AM Peak	PM Peak
Neighborhood retail	per 100m2 GFA	42.7	1.03	3.75
Shopping center	per 100m2 GFA	37.8	0.96	3.41
Supermarket	per 100m2 GFA	102.2	3.40	9.48
Convenience store	per 100m2 GFA	737.0	33.6	52.4
Restaurant / F&B	per 100m2 GFA	89.9	0.73	7.49

Civic / Institutional

Type	Unit	Daily Person-Trips	AM Peak	PM Peak
Primary school	per student	1.5	0.80	0.28
Secondary school	per student	1.7	0.75	0.28
University	per student	2.4	0.56	0.17
Hospital	per bed	11.2	1.07	0.93
Community center	per 100m2 GFA	33.3	0.73	3.22
Place of worship	per seat	0.6	0.01	0.04
Library	per 100m2 GFA	54.0	1.25	4.90

Hospitality

Type	Unit	Daily Person-Trips	AM Peak	PM Peak
Hotel (business)	per room	8.2	0.60	0.59
Hotel (resort)	per room	5.6	0.32	0.41
Serviced apartment	per unit	4.8	0.34	0.40

1.2 Aggregation Method

For a mixed-use district, total daily person-trips:

Total Person-Trips = Sum of (units x trip rate) for each use

Then apply internal capture reduction:
- Mixed-use districts with vertical/horizontal mix: 10-25% internal capture
- Single-use zones: 0-5% internal capture
- TOD areas: additional 5-15% reduction for transit proximity

Adjusted Person-Trips = Total x (1 - internal_capture) x (1 - transit_reduction)

1.3 Peak Hour Analysis

Peak hours determine intersection capacity requirements:

AM Peak Vehicle Trips = Adjusted Person-Trips x AM_peak_factor x car_mode_share
PM Peak Vehicle Trips = Adjusted Person-Trips x PM_peak_factor x car_mode_share

Where:
  AM_peak_factor = AM Peak Trip Rate / Daily Trip Rate (typically 0.08-0.12)
  PM_peak_factor = PM Peak Trip Rate / Daily Trip Rate (typically 0.09-0.14)

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2. Mode Split Framework

2.1 Target Mode Split by Context

Mode split targets depend on urban context, transit provision, and design quality. Use the following as starting targets, then adjust based on transit investment and design interventions.

Context	Walk	Cycle	Transit	Car	Freight
CBD / Urban Core	25-35%	5-15%	35-45%	10-25%	2-5%
Inner Urban (TOD)	20-30%	10-20%	25-35%	20-35%	3-5%
Urban Neighborhood	15-25%	8-15%	15-25%	35-50%	3-5%
Suburban Center	10-15%	5-10%	10-20%	55-70%	3-5%
Suburban Residential	5-10%	3-8%	5-15%	65-80%	2-4%
Campus / Innovation	20-30%	15-25%	15-25%	25-40%	2-4%
Rural / Village	15-25%	5-10%	2-8%	55-75%	5-8%

2.2 Mode Shift Levers

Each intervention shifts mode share. Combine levers to reach targets:

Intervention	Car Trip Reduction	Evidence Base
High-quality transit (metro/BRT within 400m)	15-30%	ITDP, TfL
Protected cycle network (AAA standard)	5-15%	CROW, Copenhagen
Walkable street network (intersection density > 100/km2)	5-10%	Space Syntax
Reduced parking supply (below 0.5 spaces/unit)	10-20%	Victoria Transport Policy
Car-free / car-lite zone	20-40%	Vauban, Hammarby
Mobility hub (shared mobility + transit)	5-10%	MaaS Alliance
Congestion pricing / road pricing	10-20%	Stockholm, Singapore
Employer TDM programs	5-15%	US EPA, TfL
Mixed-use development (jobs-housing balance)	5-15%	Smart Growth
Bike-share system (dense network)	2-5%	NACTO

2.3 Vehicle-Kilometers Traveled (VKT) Estimation

Daily VKT = Car Person-Trips x Average Trip Length (km) x Vehicle Occupancy Factor

Where:
  Average Trip Length:
    CBD: 4-8 km
    Urban: 6-12 km
    Suburban: 10-20 km
  Vehicle Occupancy: 1.2-1.5 persons/vehicle (commute), 1.8-2.2 (other)

Annual VKT = Daily VKT x 330 (weekday equivalent days)
VKT per Capita = Annual VKT / Population

VKT Benchmarks:

• Best practice (Amsterdam, Copenhagen): 4,000-6,000 VKT/capita/year
• Good urban (London, Singapore): 6,000-9,000
• Average developed city: 10,000-15,000
• Car-dependent sprawl (US average): 15,000-25,000

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3. Street Network Design

3.1 Network Connectivity Metrics

Metric	Poor	Adequate	Good	Excellent
Intersection density (per km2)	< 40	40-80	80-120	> 120
Link-node ratio	< 1.2	1.2-1.4	1.4-1.6	> 1.6
Connected node ratio	< 0.4	0.4-0.6	0.6-0.8	> 0.8
Block perimeter (average)	> 600m	400-600m	250-400m	< 250m
Route directness (avg detour)	> 1.6x	1.3-1.6x	1.1-1.3x	< 1.1x
Cul-de-sac percentage	> 30%	15-30%	5-15%	< 5%

3.2 Street Hierarchy Capacity

Classification	Lanes/Dir	Capacity (veh/hr/lane)	ADT Range	Signal Spacing
Expressway	2-4	1,800-2,000	> 40,000	Grade-separated
Primary arterial	2-3	800-1,000	15,000-40,000	300-600m
Secondary arterial	1-2	700-900	8,000-15,000	200-400m
Collector	1-2	600-800	3,000-8,000	150-300m
Local	1	400-600	< 3,000	Uncontrolled
Shared / woonerf	1 (shared)	N/A	< 1,000	N/A

3.3 Intersection Level of Service (LOS)

Signalized intersection capacity (per approach lane):

Saturation flow = 1,800 veh/hr (ideal)
Effective green ratio = g/C (green time / cycle time)
Capacity per lane = 1,800 x (g/C) x adjustment_factors

Volume-to-Capacity ratio (v/c):
  LOS A: v/c <= 0.60 (free flow, delay < 10 sec)
  LOS B: v/c 0.60-0.70 (stable, delay 10-20 sec)
  LOS C: v/c 0.70-0.80 (stable, delay 20-35 sec)
  LOS D: v/c 0.80-0.90 (approaching instability, delay 35-55 sec)
  LOS E: v/c 0.90-1.00 (unstable, delay 55-80 sec)
  LOS F: v/c > 1.00 (forced flow, delay > 80 sec)

Design target: LOS C or better for all approaches at buildout. Exception: In urban core areas, LOS D may be acceptable if pedestrian, cycling, and transit levels of service are excellent.

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4. Transit Planning

4.1 Transit Mode Selection

Mode	Capacity (pphpd)	Speed	Headway	Capital Cost	Catchment
Metro / MRT	30,000-80,000	30-40 km/h	2-5 min	$100-300M/km	800m walk
Light Rail (LRT)	10,000-25,000	20-30 km/h	5-10 min	$30-80M/km	600m walk
BRT (full standard)	10,000-30,000	20-28 km/h	3-8 min	$5-30M/km	500m walk
Tram / streetcar	5,000-15,000	15-25 km/h	5-10 min	$20-50M/km	400m walk
Standard bus	2,000-5,000	12-20 km/h	10-20 min	$0.5-2M/km	400m walk
Demand-responsive	500-2,000	varies	on-demand	$0.2-1M/km	200m walk

Selection decision tree:

Demand > 15,000 pphpd → Metro or full BRT
Demand 5,000-15,000 → LRT, BRT, or high-frequency tram
Demand 2,000-5,000 → Enhanced bus, tram, or BRT-lite
Demand < 2,000 → Standard bus or demand-responsive

pphpd = passengers per hour per direction

4.2 Transit Coverage Standards

Standard	Target	Source
% population within 500m of transit stop	> 80%	UN-Habitat
% jobs within 500m of transit stop	> 90%	ITDP
Maximum walk to nearest stop	400m (bus), 800m (rail)	TfL, ITDP
Service frequency (peak)	< 10 min (urban), < 15 min (suburban)	NACTO
Service frequency (off-peak)	< 15 min (urban), < 30 min (suburban)	TfL
Service span	5:00 AM - midnight minimum	TfL
Average commercial speed	> 20 km/h for surface transit	ITDP

4.3 Transit Stop Spacing

Mode	Urban Core	Urban	Suburban
Metro	800-1,200m	1,000-2,000m	2,000-5,000m
LRT	400-600m	600-800m	800-1,500m
BRT	400-600m	500-800m	800-1,200m
Tram	250-400m	300-500m	400-600m
Bus	200-300m	300-400m	400-600m

4.4 Transit Station Area Design

Station forecourt sizing:

• Minimum clear area: 400m2 for bus, 800m2 for rail
• Pedestrian space: 2.0 m2 per person at peak 5-minute arrival volume
• Cycle parking: 50-200 spaces for rail stations (10-20% of boardings)
• Kiss-and-ride: 2-5 bays for bus stops, 5-15 for rail
• Bus interchange: 15m x 3.5m per bus bay, plus 5m passenger waiting area

Wayfinding requirements:

• Station identification visible from 100m
• Mode interchange signage at every decision point
• Real-time departure information at all stops
• Walking time indicators to key destinations (5-10 min isochrones)

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5. Cycling Network Design

5.1 Network Types (CROW Classification)

Type	Width	Traffic Volume	Speed	Separation
Cycle superhighway	4.0-5.0m (bidirectional)	> 2,000/hr	30 km/h	Fully separated
Protected cycle track	2.0-2.5m (one-way)	500-2,000/hr	25 km/h	Physical barrier
Buffered bike lane	1.8-2.0m + 0.5m buffer	200-500/hr	20 km/h	Painted + posts
Bike lane	1.5-1.8m	< 200/hr	20 km/h	Painted
Shared lane (sharrow)	Full lane (4.0m min)	N/A	15 km/h	None
Cycle street	5.0-6.5m	Bikes priority	30 km/h	Cars as guests
Off-road path	3.0-4.0m (shared)	varies	20 km/h	Separated from road

5.2 Network Design Principles (CROW 5 Requirements)

1. Coherence - Network must be continuous with no gaps; every origin can reach every destination without mixing with high-speed traffic
2. Directness - Detour factor < 1.2x vs. car route; cyclists should not be forced onto longer routes
3. Safety - Separation from motor traffic on roads > 30 km/h or > 2,000 ADT; protected intersections
4. Comfort - Smooth surface, gentle grades (< 5% sustained), weather protection at stops, adequate width to overtake
5. Attractiveness - Green corridors, lighting, wayfinding, views, social safety (eyes on path)

5.3 Cycling Infrastructure Selection

Road speed limit > 50 km/h OR ADT > 10,000 → Protected cycle track (mandatory)
Road speed limit 30-50 km/h AND ADT 4,000-10,000 → Protected track or buffered lane
Road speed limit 30 km/h AND ADT 2,000-4,000 → Buffered lane or bike lane
Road speed limit 30 km/h AND ADT < 2,000 → Bike lane or shared lane
Road speed limit < 30 km/h AND ADT < 500 → Shared lane or cycle street
Off-road corridor → Shared-use path (3.0m+ width)

5.4 Cycle Parking Standards

Use	Short-Term (visitor)	Long-Term (resident/employee)
Residential	0.05 spaces/unit	1.0-2.0 spaces/unit
Office	1 per 500m2 GFA	1 per 100-150m2 GFA
Retail	1 per 200m2 GFA	1 per 500m2 GFA
School	0.1 per student	0.3-0.5 per student
Transit station	5-10% of daily boardings	N/A
Public space	10-20 per major space	N/A

Long-term parking must be: covered, secure (enclosed or surveillance), ground-floor or ramp-accessible, within 30m of building entrance.

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6. Pedestrian Accessibility

6.1 Walking Catchment Standards

Distance	Walk Time (5 km/h)	Application
200m	2.5 min	Maximum to bus stop (elderly/disabled)
400m	5 min	Standard transit stop catchment
800m	10 min	Rail station catchment, neighborhood center
1,200m	15 min	District center, secondary school
1,600m	20 min	Maximum reasonable walk for daily errands
2,000m	25 min	Maximum considered "walkable" by most people

6.2 Pedestrian Level of Service (Fruin)

LOS	Space (m2/ped)	Flow (ped/min/m)	Description
A	> 5.6	< 16	Free flow, no conflicts
B	3.7-5.6	16-23	Minor conflicts
C	2.2-3.7	23-33	Restricted, some weaving
D	1.4-2.2	33-49	Severely restricted
E	0.75-1.4	49-75	Capacity, shuffling
F	< 0.75	> 75	Breakdown, gridlock

Design targets: LOS C minimum on all sidewalks; LOS B at transit stops and crossings during peak.

6.3 Pedestrian Crossing Standards

Road Width	Crossing Type	Maximum Wait	Refuge Island
< 6m (1 lane/dir)	Uncontrolled / zebra	0 sec	Not needed
6-9m (2 lanes)	Zebra with raised table	0 sec	Recommended
9-12m (2-3 lanes)	Signalized	< 60 sec	Required
12-18m (3-4 lanes)	Signalized with refuge	< 60 sec	Required (2.0m min)
> 18m	Staged crossing / 2 signals	< 90 sec total	Required (2.5m min)

Critical rule: No pedestrian should wait more than 60 seconds at any crossing. No pedestrian should cross more than 2 lanes without a refuge.

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7. Freight and Servicing Strategy

7.1 Servicing Demand by Use

Use	Deliveries/Day per 1000m2	Peak Hour Factor	Vehicle Type
Residential	0.3-0.5	0.15 (morning)	Van, small truck
Office	0.5-1.0	0.20 (morning)	Van
Retail	2.0-4.0	0.25 (early AM)	Van, rigid truck
Supermarket	3.0-6.0	0.30 (early AM)	Articulated truck
Restaurant / F&B	3.0-5.0	0.30 (early AM)	Van, small truck
Hotel	1.0-2.0	0.20 (morning)	Van, rigid truck
Hospital	2.0-3.0	0.15	All types

7.2 Loading Bay Standards

Building GFA	Loading Bays Required	Bay Dimensions
< 2,000m2	1	3.5m x 8m (van)
2,000-5,000m2	1-2	3.5m x 12m (rigid truck)
5,000-10,000m2	2-3	3.5m x 12m + 1 x 3.5m x 16m
10,000-25,000m2	3-5	Mix of rigid and articulated bays
> 25,000m2	5+	Dedicated service yard

Loading bay location rules:

• Never on primary pedestrian frontage
• Access from secondary streets or rear lanes
• Turning circles: 12m radius for rigid trucks, 15m for articulated
• Time-restricted delivery: 6:00-10:00 AM and 7:00-10:00 PM for sensitive areas
• Consolidation center for districts > 50,000m2 commercial GFA

7.3 Last-Mile Freight Solutions

Solution	Best For	Reduction in Truck Trips
Urban consolidation center	Districts > 100,000m2	30-50%
Micro-consolidation hub	Neighborhoods	15-30%
Cargo bike delivery zone	Pedestrian areas, 3km radius	20-40% (light goods)
Off-peak delivery windows	All commercial areas	20-30% (peak reduction)
Shared loading bays	Mixed-use streets	15-25% (infrastructure)
Locker / collection points	Residential, office	10-20% (failed deliveries)

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8. Mobility Hubs

8.1 Hub Typology

Tier	Location	Catchment	Elements
Tier 1: City Hub	Major transit interchange	2-5 km	Rail + bus + bike-share + car-share + e-scooter + taxi + EV charging + parcel lockers + real-time info + staffed service point
Tier 2: Neighborhood Hub	Local transit stop or town center	800m-2km	Bus + bike-share + car-share + e-scooter + cycle parking + EV charging + parcel lockers + info kiosk
Tier 3: Micro Hub	Residential cluster or workplace	200-800m	Bike-share + e-scooter + cycle parking + EV charging + parcel locker

8.2 Hub Sizing

Element	Tier 1	Tier 2	Tier 3
Cycle parking	100-500 spaces	20-100 spaces	10-30 spaces
Bike-share docks	30-80	10-30	5-15
Car-share vehicles	5-20	2-8	1-3
EV charging points	10-30	4-10	2-4
Parcel lockers	30-100 units	10-30 units	5-15 units
Footprint	500-2,000m2	100-500m2	30-100m2

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9. Transport Impact Assessment Workflow

When a transport chapter is needed for a masterplan or development application, follow this workflow:

Step 1: Establish Baseline

• Existing traffic counts on surrounding network (ADT, peak hour)
• Existing transit services (routes, frequencies, capacity, patronage)
• Existing pedestrian and cycling infrastructure quality and flows
• Committed transport schemes (planned but not yet built)

Step 2: Estimate Demand

• Apply trip generation rates (Section 1) to the proposed program
• Apply internal capture reduction for mixed-use
• Apply mode split targets (Section 2) based on context and planned interventions
• Calculate peak hour vehicle, transit, pedestrian, and cycling trips

Step 3: Assign Trips

• Distribute trips to the surrounding network based on likely origin-destination patterns
• For vehicle trips: assign to road network, identify loaded links
• For transit trips: check capacity of planned/existing services
• For walking/cycling: check network connectivity and route quality

Step 4: Assess Impact

• Compare baseline + development vehicle volumes to intersection capacity (Section 3.3)
• Check transit capacity vs. projected demand
• Check pedestrian LOS at key crossings and sidewalks (Section 6.2)
• Check cycling route capacity and continuity

Step 5: Mitigate

• If vehicle LOS degrades below target: add mode shift levers (Section 2.2)
• If transit is over-capacity: increase service frequency or add routes
• If pedestrian LOS degrades: widen sidewalks, add crossings, reduce signal wait
• If cycling network has gaps: add protected infrastructure

Step 6: Monitor

• Define triggers for transport review (e.g., per 500 dwellings occupied)
• Set monitoring KPIs: mode split, VKT/capita, intersection LOS, transit patronage
• Establish a travel plan coordinator role for developments > 500 units

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10. Transport Demand Management (TDM)

10.1 TDM Toolkit

Strategy	Target Group	Typical Effectiveness
Workplace travel plan	Employees	10-30% car trip reduction
Residential travel plan	Residents	5-15% car trip reduction
School travel plan	Students/parents	10-25% car trip reduction
Car-share membership	Residents/employees	1 car-share replaces 8-13 private cars
Bike-to-work scheme	Employees	5-15% mode shift to cycling
Flexible working / WFH	Office employees	10-20% peak trip reduction
Delivery consolidation	Commercial occupiers	20-40% freight trip reduction
Parking pricing / cash-out	Employees	10-30% car trip reduction
Real-time travel info	All users	3-8% mode shift
Gamification / rewards	All users	2-5% mode shift

10.2 Parking as TDM

Critical principle: Parking supply is the single most powerful lever for mode split. Reducing parking supply below car ownership rates forces behavior change more effectively than any other intervention.

Context	Maximum Parking Ratio	Car Ownership Effect
CBD / transit-rich	0-0.3 spaces/unit	0.2-0.4 cars/household
Inner urban (good transit)	0.3-0.7 spaces/unit	0.5-0.8 cars/household
Urban neighborhood	0.7-1.0 spaces/unit	0.8-1.2 cars/household
Suburban (some transit)	1.0-1.5 spaces/unit	1.2-1.8 cars/household
Suburban (car-dependent)	1.5-2.0 spaces/unit	1.5-2.2 cars/household

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11. Transport Metrics Dashboard

When producing a transport strategy for a masterplan or district plan, compile these metrics:

Metric	Target	Source
Mode split (walk)	> 20%	Context-dependent
Mode split (cycle)	> 10%	Context-dependent
Mode split (transit)	> 25%	Context-dependent
Mode split (car)	< 40%	Context-dependent
VKT per capita per year	< 8,000 km	Best practice
Intersection density	> 100 per km2	ITDP
% population within 400m of transit	> 80%	UN-Habitat
Average pedestrian crossing wait	< 45 sec	TfL
Parking ratio (residential)	< 0.7 spaces/unit	TOD standard
Cycle network density	> 1.5 km per km2	CROW
Loading bays per 10,000m2 commercial	2-4	Planning standards
EV charging points per 100 parking spaces	> 20	EU directive
Mobility hub coverage (% pop within 800m)	> 70%	MaaS standard

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Cross-Skill Integration

This skill integrates with:

• street-design: For detailed cross-section design after the transport hierarchy is established
• tod-design: For transit-oriented density gradients and station area design
• masterplan-design: As a core input for Phase 4 (Movement Network)
• block-and-density: Street network connectivity determines block dimensions
• parking calculator (urban-calculator): For precise parking demand calculations
• sustainability-scoring: Transport metrics feed directly into LEED-ND and BREEAM scores
• cost-estimation: For transport infrastructure cost modeling

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Deep Knowledge References

For complete trip generation tables with additional land use types, peak hour factors, and directional splits:

• See references/trip-generation.md

For detailed transit planning guidance including route design, service planning, fleet sizing, and fare integration:

• See references/transit-planning.md

For cycling network design details including intersection treatments, signal priority, and grade separation:

• See references/cycling-design.md