feature-unit-testing

name	feature-unit-testing
description	Use when writing, planning, or improving unit tests for low-level transport or systems code — especially when reasoning about branch coverage, test gaps, identifying which uncovered paths are worth pursuing, or deciding when a feature's test suite is ready to merge.

Feature-Centric Unit Testing

Overview

One test = one transport feature. Tests live at the internal API boundary, not at the system level (ncclAllReduce). This localizes failures immediately: broken test → broken feature, no stack archaeology. The suite is the acceptance criterion for every PR.

Central discipline: measure coverage first, plan second. Verify assumptions against real data before writing a single test.

Modules

• multithread-validation.md — covering concurrent use of a net plugin: which production threading to reproduce, which concurrency is not worth testing, worker-option parsing, and how to make overlap an assertion.

---

Feature Testing Lifecycle

Feature spec / integration plan
         │
         ▼
  DOMAIN 1 — Requirements & Planning
  • Write test plan at spec time (before any code)
  • Hardware scope: which cluster, NIC model, GDR, AINIC, QP count
  • Agree on coverage tier as merge acceptance criterion
         │
         ▼
  DOMAIN 2 — Basic Scenarios
  • Happy path, functional correctness, data integrity
  • Whitebox: direct internal API calls, scheduler inspection
  • Typically reaches ~50% line coverage
         │
         ▼
  DOMAIN 3 — Bottleneck & Edge Case Discovery
  • Fault injection, stress, boundary sizes, concurrent connections
  • Parametric sweeps, async data mutation, multidirectional patterns
  • Pushes coverage from 50% toward 70–90%+
         │
         ▼
  ACCEPTANCE — Coverage Measurement
  • Measure → classify gap → add tests → re-measure
  • below target ──► identify gap ──► add tests ──► re-measure
  • at target    ──► merge

TDD analogy: test plan = "red" phase written before code exists; Domain 2+3 = "green"; coverage measurement = objective acceptance signal.

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Coverage Acceptance Tiers

Prefer branch coverage as the primary merge criterion. Line coverage is a secondary signal; function coverage is informational only. See the Why Branch Coverage section.

Tier	Line coverage	Branch coverage	When to target
Basic	≥ 50%	≥ 35%	New feature, first PR — core path exercised
Standard	≥ 70%	≥ 50%	Feature complete — error paths and main branches covered
Thorough	≥ 90%	≥ 65%	Stable, high-impact — fault injection required
Critical	≥ 95%	≥ 80%	Safety-critical: fatal-error handling, data integrity

Cost of moving between tiers: Standard→Thorough (branch) requires fault injection and parametric sweeps. Thorough→Critical is expensive — hardware-specific paths and rare races; calculate the realistic branch ceiling for your cluster before committing to this tier.

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Domain 1: Requirements & Planning

Before writing any test code, create a test plan that defines:

1. Feature scope — which internal API surface is being tested, what is explicitly out of scope
2. Scenario inventory — happy path, error paths, edge cases, concurrency patterns
3. Hardware scope — which NIC model, how many ports, GDR/DMA-buf availability, single-node vs cross-host. Discovering that a test requires unavailable hardware after writing it wastes effort.
4. Coverage tier — agree on a branch coverage target (Basic/Standard/Thorough/Critical) as the merge acceptance criterion. This is the "red" phase in TDD: the bar is set before code exists.

The plan becomes the PR description's Test Plan section — reviewable alongside code. It is a planning artifact — do not commit it as a file; keep it in the PR body.

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Commit Convention

One commit per test. Each test gets its own atomic commit so reviewers can evaluate test intent and scope individually, and bisect targets a single test on regression.

Title format: <subsystem>: add <test name> test (lowercase, no brackets)

net-ib: add test infrastructure (StressTests harness)   ← CMakeLists + base fixture
net-ib: add InvalidRecvCount test                       ← repeated ×N (test name verbatim)
net-ib: update feature-unit-testing skill               ← skill update last

Body (required): one short paragraph — what the test does, what path it covers, BRDA ref:

Call ncclIbIrecv with n=9 (> NCCL_NET_IB_MAX_RECVS=8). Verifies the early-return
branch returns ncclInternalError without crashing (net_ib.cc:2731, BRDA:2731,0,1).

What to NOT commit:

• Test plans (TEST_PLAN.md) — planning artifact, not part of the test suite
• Coverage shell scripts (run_*.sh, merge_coverage.sh) — operational, not source
• Profraw / profdata files — build artifacts

---

Domain 2: Basic Scenario Patterns

Whitebox testing — bypass the public API

Call internal APIs directly. No ncclCommInit overhead. Example:

// Direct internal call — not through ncclAllReduce
IbCastIsend(sendComm, buf, size, tag, mh, nullptr, &req);

// Read scheduler state directly to verify internal invariants
ncclIbCastGetSchedState(sendComm, &state);
EXPECT_GT(state.activeQpTokens[0], 0);

Whitebox lets a test assert that WRR correctly redistributed tokens when one link is slow — something a blackbox allreduce test cannot verify.

Structural patterns (MPI transport tests)

Double-barrier around every send/recv iteration:

// rank 0: post recv  |  rank 1: post send
MPI_Barrier(MPI_COMM_WORLD);   // after both sides post
// both: wait for completion
MPI_Barrier(MPI_COMM_WORLD);   // after both sides complete

Without the second barrier, one rank reuses request slots before the other finishes.

Retry loop for NULL send request (FIFO backpressure is normal):

do {
    ASSERT_EQ(net_->isend(sendComm, data, size, tag, mh, nullptr, &req), ncclSuccess);
    if (req) break;
    usleep(10000);
} while (true);
// Never ASSERT_NE(req, nullptr) immediately after isend.

RAII guard declaration order:

NetConnectionGuard connGuard(net_);          // 1st — connection
auto bufGuard = makeHostBufferAutoGuard(…);  // 2nd — buffers
NetMHandleGuard mhGuard(mh, …);             // 3rd — memory registration
// Destruction runs in reverse: MR deregistered before connection closed.

Non-fatal checks in multi-rank helpers (fan-in, fan-out, all-to-all):

// Use EXPECT_ (non-fatal), not ASSERT_ (fatal), before any MPI_Barrier.
// A fatal assert in rank 0 leaves all other ranks hanging at the barrier.
EXPECT_EQ(PostRecv(…), ncclSuccess);
// …
MPI_Barrier(MPI_COMM_WORLD);  // unconditional — always reached

Timeout in poll loops (never spin forever):

// Poll loops that wait for async completion MUST have a timeout.
// An infinite loop masks the real bug (e.g. unroutable NIC) as "test hung".
auto deadline = std::chrono::steady_clock::now() + std::chrono::seconds(30);
while (!comm && std::chrono::steady_clock::now() < deadline) {
    ncclResult_t r = AcceptConnection(listenComm, &comm);
    if (r != ncclSuccess) break;
}
if (!comm) { /* handle timeout — GTEST_SKIP or fail with diagnostic */ }

Track the return value of each poll iteration separately from the NULL-comm check. A loop that only checks !comm cannot distinguish "still in progress" from "API returned an error 10 iterations ago and will never succeed".

GTEST_SKIP() synchronization across ranks:

// When one rank detects a condition requiring SKIP (e.g. QP connect failed),
// it MUST broadcast this to all ranks BEFORE calling GTEST_SKIP().
// GTEST_SKIP() does a return — if rank 0 returns, rank 1 hangs on MPI_Recv.
int skipFlag = (connectFailed ? 1 : 0);
MPI_Allreduce(MPI_IN_PLACE, &skipFlag, 1, MPI_INT, MPI_MAX, MPI_COMM_WORLD);
if (skipFlag) {
    GTEST_SKIP() << "QP connect failed on at least one rank";
}

Without the Allreduce, a unilateral GTEST_SKIP() in one rank leaves the other rank blocked forever at its next MPI call or poll loop.

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Domain 3: Fault Injection

Deliberately break one component — verify the system response.

Compile-guarded (-DENABLE_FAULT_INJECTION=ON), zero cost in production:

ncclIbCastFaultSetQpDelay(comm, qpIdx, delayUs);   // artificial latency on one QP
ncclIbCastFaultSetQpError(comm, qpIdx, true);       // force ncclSystemError
ncclIbCastFaultClear(comm);                         // reset for recovery test

Test categories fault injection enables:

• Fatal event propagation — all QPs faulted simultaneously
• Single link failure — one QP faulted, WRR steered away deterministically
• Scheduler rebalancing — artificial delay → WRR redistributes tokens
• Data integrity under delay — sends complete correctly despite latency
• Recovery — fault → clear → fresh connection completes cleanly

When fault injection is the only option: wc.status != IBV_WC_SUCCESS paths in ncclIbTest, fatalErrorCount threshold branches, async error processing — all show zero hits in coverage until a fault injection hook exists.

Without a compile-time hook: use LD_PRELOAD to intercept at the dynamic linker level:

// libibverbs_mock.so — intercepts ibv_poll_cq, injects bad WC after N calls
int ibv_poll_cq(struct ibv_cq *cq, int num, struct ibv_wc *wc) {
    static int calls = 0;
    if (++calls == INJECT_AT) { wc->status = IBV_WC_REM_ACCESS_ERR; return 1; }
    return real_ibv_poll_cq(cq, num, wc);
}

LD_PRELOAD only works if the target calls the symbol through the PLT. It does not work when the code uses dlopen/dlsym to resolve symbols into private function pointers, or dispatches through a driver ops-struct (e.g. cq->context->ops.poll_cq) — both bypass interposition. Check the binary for dlopen/dlsym usage before planning a shim; if it's there, fall back to a compile-time fault hook instead.

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Domain 3: Stress Testing

Resource leak detection:

100 × (listen → connect → transfer → close)
Assert QP / PD / CQ / MR counts return to baseline after every cycle.

Transfer size coverage:

• Minimum: 1-byte messages — exposes framing bugs invisible at larger sizes
• Non-powers-of-two: 3, 7, 1023, 4097, 65537 — alignment and boundary conditions
• Maximum: up to 64 MB — exercises large MR registration and buffer management

Multidirectional patterns: allgather, alltoall, hypercube topologies; bidirectional simultaneous send/recv on the same connection; many concurrent connections open simultaneously (stress QP allocation limits).

Async data mutation: mutate the send buffer after posting the send. Verifies the NIC captured data before mutation — detects use-after-post bugs in buffer registration.

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Domain 3: Parametric Configuration Matrix

One test body swept over a grid of env-var combinations:

WRR on/off × QPS count × split threshold × adaptive routing threshold

Surfaces interactions between features that per-feature tests miss. Implement with GTEST_SKIP() when a required env var is absent:

const char* v = getenv("NCCL_IB_QPS_PER_CONNECTION");
if (!v) GTEST_SKIP() << "Set NCCL_IB_QPS_PER_CONNECTION to run this test";

---

Why Branch Coverage, Not Lines or Functions

Line coverage lies. Branch coverage tells the truth.

A line is "covered" if it executed at least once — regardless of which path through it was taken. A function is "covered" if it was called — regardless of what happened inside. A branch is covered only when both sides of a conditional have been exercised.

// Line coverage: 100% (line executes in every test)
// Branch coverage: 50% (error path never taken)
if (result != ncclSuccess) goto fail;   // ← "fail" branch: count = 0

Typical pattern in transport code: adding a batch of stress tests can leave line coverage essentially flat while moving branch coverage only marginally — because the new tests re-exercise already-covered happy-path lines, while the uncovered side of each decision (the error or hardware-specific path) stays untaken. A healthy-looking line-coverage figure can hide that a large share of decision points are only half-tested. For transport code that gap maps directly to bugs tests cannot catch.

Functions coverage is the least informative metric for systems code. A function called once with the happy-path arguments appears fully covered even if it contains 20 conditional branches that were never exercised.

Branch coverage in practice

Use --branch-coverage in genhtml:

genhtml --branch-coverage merged.lcov.info -o html/
# Without this flag, the HTML report does not show per-branch hit counts.

lcov vs llvm-cov branch counts differ: the two tools report different branch denominators for the same file (llvm-cov includes C++ exception pseudo-branches that lcov's BRDA parsing excludes). Use one tool consistently within a comparison — mixing denominators makes deltas meaningless. lcov/genhtml is preferred for branch-level HTML drill-down.

Read BRDA lines, not DA lines, when hunting gaps:

DA:1234,5        ← line 1234 executed 5 times (line coverage)
BRDA:1234,0,0,5  ← block 0, branch 0: taken 5 times (covered)
BRDA:1234,0,1,0  ← block 0, branch 1: taken 0 times ← THIS IS THE GAP

A line with DA count > 0 but a BRDA count of 0 on one arm is the exact pattern of "line covered, branch not covered" — the most common source of false confidence.

Agree on a branch coverage tier at planning time (see Coverage Acceptance Tiers above). Branch coverage ceilings are hardware-dependent — establish a realistic ceiling (branches reachable on your hardware) before setting a target.

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Coverage Analysis Workflow

STOP — mandatory before writing any test to cover a gap:

1. Export BRDA data and find the exact branch at the target line.
2. Confirm the count field is 0. If it is > 0, the branch is already covered — do not write a test.
3. Read ±10 lines of source context to classify the branch (Trivial / Structural / Hardware / Fault injection / Dead).
4. Only then write or run a test.

Skipping this check is the single most common cause of zero-delta test additions.

1. Get the raw BRDA data

llvm-profdata merge -sparse *.profraw -o merged.profdata
llvm-cov export -format=lcov -instr-profile=merged.profdata ./binary \
    -sources src/your_file.cc > merged.lcov.info
genhtml --branch-coverage merged.lcov.info -o html/

# Extract uncovered branches (count == 0)
awk -F: '/^SF:.*your_file/{found=1} found && /^BRDA:/ && $NF==0 \
    {print} /^end_of_record/{found=0}' merged.lcov.info | sort -t: -k2 -n

2. Read source context around every uncovered line

Read ±10 lines. A branch at a given line may be a trivial env-var check or a hardware-only fault path — the line number tells you nothing without context.

3. Verify existing tests before claiming a gap

Anti-pattern: "All tests call PostRecv(n=1), so the nreqs > 1 path is uncovered."

What actually happened: MultiRecv and MultiRecvShuffled already called PostRecv(n=8) with shuffled tag order, covering the FIFO slot scan for r > 0. The BRDA count showed > 0. The assumption was wrong.

Rule: Before adding a test to cover branch X, check the BRDA count for that exact line in the merged profile. If count > 0, it is already covered.

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Branch Classification

Classify every uncovered branch before deciding whether to test it:

Class	Description	Technique
Trivial	One env var or API param change	Set NCCL_IB_X=1, call with n=9
Structural	State the harness can't easily create	Cross-host run, tc qdisc netem delay
Hardware	Needs specific HW (GDR, >1 NIC, non-loopback)	Different node, or GTEST_SKIP()
Fault injection	Needs a mock/shim returning errors	LD_PRELOAD, compile-time hook
Dead/unreachable	Kernel or driver guarantees make it impossible	Document and skip

Ceiling calculation: count only Trivial + Structural (with infra) + Fault injection. Never include Dead branches in projected delta.

What moves coverage in net_ib.cc (measured on one cluster — verify on yours):

• Multi-QP split (NCCL_IB_SPLIT_DATA_ON_QPS=1) — split alignment branches, QP distribution
• MR cache stress (many regMr/deregMr cycles) — binary-search insert/expand/deref
• Shuffled multi-recv (PostRecv(n=8) + non-FIFO send order) — FIFO slot scan for r > 0

Structural ceiling without special infra: ncclIbConnect/ncclIbAccept state machine branches — only reachable when ncclSocketConnect returns before socket ready. On loopback this never happens. Requires cross-host (srun -N 2) or tc qdisc netem. The exact count depends on the source version; use BRDA analysis to find these in your build.

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Hardware Capability Gating

Env-var gating:

// Graceful SKIP (not FAIL) when hardware feature absent
if (!getenv("NCCL_IB_GDR_LEVEL") || atoi(getenv("NCCL_IB_GDR_LEVEL")) == 0)
    GTEST_SKIP() << "GDR not enabled on this node";

Network topology gating (routable GID check):

A NIC with only link-local GIDs (fe80::) or all-zero GIDs will pass ibv_modify_qp INIT→RTR without error — RoCE QP setup does not validate routing. But RDMA packets are silently dropped cross-node: no CQE, no error, just a timeout. This is a common source of "recv timed out" failures that look like bugs but are hardware topology.

Gate on routable GIDs by reading /sys/class/infiniband/<dev>/ports/1/gids:

// Check that the NIC has at least one routable GID (IPv4-mapped or global IPv6).
// Skip test if the NIC can set up QPs but cannot actually deliver RDMA traffic.
static bool HasRoutableGid(const char* devName) {
    // Read /sys/class/infiniband/<devName>/ports/1/gids/<index>
    // A GID is routable if it is NOT all-zero and NOT fe80:: (link-local).
    // IPv4-mapped: 0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:ffff:xxxx:xxxx — routable.
    ...
}
if (!HasRoutableGid(props.name))
    GTEST_SKIP() << devName << " has no routable GID (link-local only)";

Makes the same test suite portable across clusters. Hardware-specific gaps are documented, not faked. A SKIP that explains its reason is useful; a disabled test with no explanation is technical debt.

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AI Assistance at Each Phase

Phase	AI role
Requirements	Identify corner cases from spec; flag hardware dependencies; draft test plan
Domain 2	Generate test boilerplate, MPI rank structure, buffer helpers
Domain 3	Propose non-obvious parameter combinations; identify race-prone paths
Gap analysis	Map uncovered functions to test categories; suggest fault injection targets
Iteration	Generate new tests for specific uncovered branches; validate fixes

AI proposes, engineer validates — especially for hardware-specific behaviour and expected error codes. AI's highest value is at requirements and gap-analysis phases: "what are we missing?" rather than "how do we write this loop?".

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MPI + SLURM Execution (this codebase)

MPI/SLURM flags are cluster-specific — interface names, MCA parameters, GPU resource requests, and HPC-X paths differ across environments. The example below is a template; adapt to your cluster.

Reference scripts (actual working configurations):

• test/transport/NetIbMPI/configs/ — runner configs per cluster/NIC combination
• Build & test runner scripts used during development (check ~/run_*.sh on the node)

# Template — adapt interface, MCA, and path values to your cluster
sbatch --nodes=2 --ntasks-per-node=1 --exclusive --time=00:10:00 \
  --wrap='mpirun -np 2 --host "$NODE1,$NODE2" \
  --mca pml ob1 --mca btl tcp,self --mca btl_tcp_if_include <IFACE> \
  --mca coll_hcoll_enable 0 --mca coll_ucc_enable 0 \
  --bind-to none \
  -x LD_LIBRARY_PATH=<build>:/opt/rocm/lib \
  -x LLVM_PROFILE_FILE=/path/to/%p.profraw \
  <build>/test/rccl-UnitTestsMPI --gtest_filter="NetIbMPITest.X"'

• Interface name (<IFACE>) varies: eth0, eno8303, etc. — check ip link on the node
• --gres=gpu:N is required only for tests that use GPU/HIP; net-ib MPI transport tests do not need it — they test the IB verbs layer directly
• %p in LLVM_PROFILE_FILE → one .profraw per MPI rank
• --mca pml ob1 --mca btl tcp,self — use TCP for MPI control plane, not IB verbs
• HPC-X paths (OPAL_PREFIX, LD_PRELOAD for UCX) depend on the installed version

Background builds and cron monitoring

Builds and long test runs block the conversation when run in the foreground. Use sbatch (not srun) so the job runs detached and writes output to an NFS log file. Then set a CronCreate job to poll for completion.

# 1. Submit build as sbatch, output to NFS log
BUILDLOG=<build_dir>/build_$(date +%Y%m%d_%H%M%S).log
sbatch --nodelist=<NODE> --cpus-per-task=64 \
  --output="$BUILDLOG" \
  --wrap='cd <build_dir> && cmake --build . --target rccl-UnitTestsMPI -- -j64'
# → prints "Submitted batch job <JOBID>"

Then create a Claude CronCreate tool call (not a shell command) to monitor:

CronCreate(
  cron="*/2 * * * *",
  prompt="Check job <JOBID>: run squeue --me. If gone, read last 30 lines of $BUILDLOG
          and report result to user. If still running, tail -3 log for errors and note
          'still building, N min elapsed' silently.",
  recurring=true
)

When the job completes, CronDelete the monitoring job.

Always specify -j64 (or -- -j64 after cmake --build) — SLURM allocates 1 CPU by default; without --cpus-per-task=64 and -j64, $(nproc) returns 1 and the build serialises. The -- -j64 form passes the flag through cmake to the underlying make/ninja.

Same pattern for test runs — any mpirun/srun that takes > 30 s:

sbatch --nodes=2 --ntasks-per-node=1 --exclusive --time=00:10:00 \
  --output=<logfile> \
  --wrap='mpirun -np 2 ... rccl-UnitTestsMPI --gtest_filter=...'
# Add --gres=gpu:<N> only for GPU-using tests.

---

Common Mistakes

Mistake	Consequence	Fix
Assume branch uncovered without reading BRDA	Write redundant test	Check count in lcov first
ASSERT_NE(req, nullptr) after isend	Spurious failures	Use retry loop; NULL is normal
ASSERT_ before MPI_Barrier in multi-rank helper	Deadlock on failure	EXPECT_ + unconditional barrier
Forget --gres=gpu:N in srun (GPU tests)	GPU tests SKIPPED silently	Include GPU resource request for HIP-using tests; net-ib MPI tests don't need it
Mix profraws from different builds	Corrupt coverage data	One build dir per coverage run
Wrong binary path in srun/mpirun	"No such file" on remote node	Binary is in build/test/, not build/; NFS not mounted on all nodes
llvm-profdata version mismatch	"unsupported profile format"	Use /opt/rocm-X.Y.Z/lib/llvm/bin/llvm-profdata matching the compiler
Run tests expecting to cover already-covered paths	+0 delta, wasted effort	Check BRDA count field before writing — if >0, path is already covered
Count structural/dead branches in projected delta	Overestimate ceiling	Classify before projecting
Read line number without source context	Wrong technique chosen	Always read ±10 lines
GTEST_SKIP() in one rank without MPI sync	Other rank hangs at next barrier/recv	MPI_Allreduce a skip flag across all ranks before any GTEST_SKIP()
Write tests before test plan	No merge criterion	Plan first, including hardware scope

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Key Principles (summary)

Principle	Applied as
Feature-centric	One test = one transport feature
Plan first	Written at spec time, part of integration plan
TDD analogy	Coverage tier agreed upfront; measure → iterate until met
Whitebox	Direct internal API + inspect scheduler state
Fault injection	Controlled failures; compile-guarded, zero production cost
Stress	Resource leaks, extreme sizes, concurrent, async mutation
Coverage-driven	Branch coverage primary; tiered acceptance; realistic ceiling per cluster
Portable	Hardware gaps documented, graceful SKIP
AI-assisted	Agents at each phase; engineer validates

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Maintaining This Skill

This document is the fixed record of the methodology — not a lab notebook. It changes rarely and only for durable reasons.

Add or change something only when:

• A genuinely new methodology emerges (a new class of technique, phase, or acceptance rule) that future testers should follow, or
• An existing rule is shown to be wrong or incomplete and the methodology itself must change.

Never add:

• Concrete coverage numbers, test counts, branch tallies, or per-run deltas — they are snapshots of one hardware/build and rot immediately. They belong in a per-feature coverage report (e.g. an *_COVERAGE.md next to the work), not here.
• Incident logs, "resolved puzzle" notes, or one-off debugging anecdotes.
• Tool-version specifics, exact env-var flag lists, cluster paths, or other details that vary by environment — reference the kind of thing, not the value.

When tempted to record a finding: ask "is this a reusable rule, or a measurement?" Measurements go in the coverage report and link back here by reference. Only the rule (if any) belongs in the skill.

Keep entries principle-level and environment-agnostic: describe what to do and why, with categories and references, never specific magnitudes.

Coverage Ceiling Is Hardware-Dependent (principle)

The reachable branch-coverage ceiling is bounded by available hardware and infrastructure, not by test effort. A large fraction of transport branches are error/fault/hardware paths unreachable without special infrastructure (fault-injection hooks, GDR/DMA-buf hardware, multi-port/RoCE fabric, cross-host or netem latency for connect/accept mid-states). Therefore:

• Establish the realistic ceiling for your specific hardware before setting a target — otherwise the target is unachievable by design and the gap is not a quality problem.
• Classify each uncovered branch (Trivial / Structural / Hardware / Fault injection / Dead) and count only the reachable classes toward a projected delta.
• Some branches are genuinely unreachable on a given setup (compiler exception pseudo-branches, single-thread-only race windows, log-macro internals). Document them as the ceiling; do not contrive tests to flip them.

Lever, not magnitude: record which techniques move coverage (multi-QP split, MR-cache churn, shuffled multi-recv, env-var sweeps, fault injection), not the percentage each produced — that varies per build and lives in the coverage report.

Env-var technique — run existing tests under additional env-var combinations to reach configuration branches without writing new tests; merge each run's profile into the same profdata rather than measuring it standalone. (Which specific env vars apply is project/version-specific — find them via BRDA analysis, don't hardcode a list here.)