| name | rust-best-practices |
| description | Use when writing, reviewing, or refactoring Rust code — covers idiomatic patterns, ownership, error handling, performance, testing, generics, type system, and API design best practices |
Rust Best Practices
Sources:
Capítulos completos (conteúdo integral)
Os arquivos abaixo contêm o conteúdo completo e original de cada capítulo:
| Arquivo | Conteúdo |
|---|
| chapter_01.md | Coding Styles & Idioms — borrowing, Copy, Option/Result, iterators, comments |
| chapter_02.md | Clippy & Linting — cargo clippy, lints importantes, workspace config |
| chapter_03.md | Performance — flamegraph, cloning, stack/heap, zero-cost abstractions |
| chapter_04.md | Error Handling — Result, unwrap, thiserror, anyhow, ?, async errors |
| chapter_05.md | Automated Testing — naming, doc tests, unit vs integration, snapshot |
| chapter_06.md | Generics & Dispatch — static vs dynamic, trait objects, trade-offs |
| chapter_07.md | Type State Pattern — PhantomData, builder, state machine |
| chapter_08.md | Comments vs Documentation — //, ///, //!, TODOs, rustdoc lints |
| chapter_09.md | Pointers — &T, Box, Rc, Arc, Mutex, RwLock, OnceLock, LazyLock |
| api-guidelines.md | Rust API Guidelines — naming, interop, type safety, future proofing, checklist completo |
| rust-analyzer-style.md | Rust Analyzer Style Guide — imports, control flow, naming, perf, getters, constructors |
Quando precisar de detalhes completos com todos os exemplos, leia o chapter correspondente.
OpenRig — Rust + Cargo Workflow
Regras específicas de Rust e Cargo que aplicam ao este projeto. Princípios de metodologia (zero coupling, single source of truth, separação business/presentation, file organization) vivem em openrig-code-quality e são linguagem-agnósticos — esta seção complementa com o que é de Rust/Cargo.
Quality Gate — compartilhado xgodev/quality-gate (issue #482)
Gate único comparativo, mantido fora do repo. Mesmo dispatcher local e CI; falha apenas se o PR piora alguma métrica vs origin/develop. Antes de qualquer git push (ou use a skill claude-plugin:quality-gate):
git -C ~/.quality-gate pull --ff-only \
|| git clone --depth 1 https://github.com/xgodev/quality-gate.git ~/.quality-gate
~/.quality-gate/qg --base origin/develop
Compara 6 métricas (fmt, lint -D warnings, build, test, complexity, coverage). CI clona o gate no job e passa --baseline-dir baseline/ --force-full.
Regras absolutas:
- Nunca pushar com gate vermelho.
- O gate ignora o
clippy.toml/rustfmt.toml do projeto (tamper-resistance) — não adianta subir threshold. Nunca setar QG_BYPASS_REASON, marcar testes #[ignore], #[allow(...)] sem causa raiz, ou --no-verify.
- Em CI: falha vira sticky comment + request-changes formal pelo
github-actions[bot]. Agent autor itera até verde (limite 3 tentativas).
Detalhes em docs/development/quality-gate.md.
MANDATORY — Run Static Validation on Every File You Touch
After creating or modifying any .rs or .slint file, run:
./scripts/validate.sh path/to/file1.rs path/to/file2.slint ...
Or let it auto-detect changed files from git diff:
./scripts/validate.sh
What it checks:
| Check | Rust | Slint |
|---|
| File size | ≤ 600 lines | ≤ 500 lines |
| Formatting | cargo fmt --check | — |
| Linting | cargo clippy -D warnings | — |
| Compilation | — | cargo check -p adapter-gui |
Rules:
FAIL (red) = hard violation — fix before committing, no exceptionsWARN (yellow) = known debt file — do NOT add more lines to it- If a file shows
WARN and you need to add logic: refactor it into smaller modules first
Anti-pattern:
❌ Modify crates/adapter-gui/src/lib.rs (9441 lines) and add 50 more lines
// WRONG: known debt file. Create a new module, move logic there first.
✅ Extract the relevant logic to crates/adapter-gui/src/project.rs (new file)
then add your feature there
Zero tolerance for FAIL: A task is not done until validate.sh exits 0.
File Size — 600 lines per .rs (hard cap)
If a file exceeds 600 lines, it MUST be split before adding anything new. This is the Rust-specific operationalization of the language-agnostic file organization rule from openrig-code-quality.
Zero Warnings (OBRIGATORIO)
#[allow(...)] is a last resort, not a fix — it's a workaround to shut the lint up
A lint fires because the code has a real smell. #[allow(...)] hides the smell; it does not remove it. Reaching for #[allow] to make a build/clippy pass is a gambiarra. Fix what the lint is pointing at:
| Lint | The gambiarra (don't) | The real fix |
|---|
too_many_arguments | #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)] | group the cohesive/loop-invariant args into a struct (e.g. a Context/Design value) and pass that |
should_implement_trait (a method named next/add/…) | #[allow(...)] | rename it to say what it does (next_bipolar, advance, …) — if it's not the trait, don't borrow the trait's name |
needless_range_loop | #[allow(...)] | iterate the collection (for (i, x) in xs.iter().enumerate()), not 0..len |
excessive_precision | #[allow(...)] | trim the literal to the value the f32/f64 can actually represent |
#[allow] is justified ONLY in genuinely extreme cases — e.g. an ergonomic constructor with 8 all-essential, cohesive args and hundreds of call sites where a struct would add indirection without value (float_parameter in block-core). "Extreme" means refactoring costs more than it's worth AND the args are irreducibly essential, not "the fix is annoying". When you do allow, it must be the narrowest scope (per-item, never crate-wide unless it's a documented debt snapshot) with a comment saying why it's extreme. Also: the shared quality-gate treats an #[allow(...)] without a root cause as tampering (see the QG section above).
Anti-Pattern:
❌ cargo build // with 3 warnings about unused variables
// WRONG: warnings are not acceptable, fix them
❌ #[allow(dead_code)]
pub fn unused_helper() { ... }
// WRONG: suppress warning without fixing root cause
❌ #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
fn materialize(&self, block_id, effect_type, model, audio_mode, value) { ... }
// WRONG: gambiarra — the first four args travel together
✅ fn materialize(&self, ctx: &MaterializeContext, value) { ... } // grouped → 2 args
✅ Remove or use the dead code
✅ cargo build 2>&1 | grep "^warning" // → empty output
Cargo Clean em .solvers/ — OBRIGATORIO antes de build
Workspaces em .solvers/issue-N/ acumulam estado inconsistente no target/ ao longo de merges, edições em vários crates, troca de branches, ou uso compartilhado com o Docker builder. Sintomas clássicos:
error[E0460]: possibly newer version of crate X which Y depends onerror[E0463]: can't find crate for <crate>rustc panicked at rmeta/decoder.rs ... no encoded ident for item (ICE)- Build parece verde mas run-time dispara "fn X not found" em símbolo que existe
Regra: antes de rodar QUALQUER build que o usuário vá consumir (teste local, build-linux-local.sh, build-deb-local.sh, build-orange-pi-image.sh), executar cargo clean na raiz do workspace .solvers/issue-N/ primeiro.
Quando é obrigatório:
Anti-pattern:
❌ cargo build --workspace # após 3 merges sem cargo clean
// WRONG: cache inconsistente. Pode passar localmente e quebrar no Docker
❌ Sugerir "./scripts/build-deb-local.sh" sem prefixo de cargo clean
// WRONG: quase sempre falha com E0460/E0463 no Docker
Correct pattern:
✅ cd .solvers/issue-N && cargo clean && cargo build --workspace
✅ cd .solvers/issue-N && cargo clean && ./scripts/build-linux-local.sh --clean ...
✅ Sugerir pro usuário: "cargo clean && ./scripts/build-deb-local.sh --clean"
O flag --clean (ou --nuke) do build-linux-local.sh/build-deb-local.sh já cobre a limpeza DENTRO do Docker. Mas cargo clean LOCAL é ainda mais rápido e deve ser reflexo.
Red flag: se você rodou cargo build e deu verde sem ter feito cargo clean após merges ou cfg changes, NÃO confie no resultado. Refaça com clean.
Platform Isolation — cfg Guards (técnica Rust)
Premissa geral de isolamento por plataforma (nunca quebrar áudio em outro SO) vive em CLAUDE.md → "Prioridades de Produto" e "Premissa de distribuicao". Esta seção cobre apenas a técnica Rust pra aplicar a premissa.
Anti-Pattern:
❌ // Changing a cross-platform audio constant to fix Linux behavior
const BUFFER_SIZE: usize = 256; // was 128, changed for JACK stability
// WRONG: affects macOS and Windows — use cfg guard
✅ #[cfg(all(target_os = "linux", feature = "jack"))]
const BUFFER_SIZE: usize = 256;
#[cfg(not(all(target_os = "linux", feature = "jack")))]
const BUFFER_SIZE: usize = 128;
Build.rs Auto-detection (registry pattern)
OpenRig's block-* crates use a build.rs that scans src/*.rs for pub const MODEL_DEFINITION and codegens the registry. Practical consequences:
- Adding a new model = drop a
nam_<id>.rs (or lv2_<id>.rs, ir_<id>.rs, native_<id>.rs) with MODEL_DEFINITION const. No manual registry edit.
- File-name prefix matters —
build.rs may filter by stem (e.g. starts_with("nam_")). Renaming a model file silently breaks the build if the new name doesn't match the convention. grep "starts_with\|stem ==" crates/block-*/build.rs before renaming.
Tests — Rust specifics
Princípios gerais de test coverage em openrig-code-quality. Aqui o operacional Rust:
Safe Refactoring — Rust specifics
Capítulos do Apollo Rust Best Practices Handbook
A seguir o conteúdo original dos chapters (não-OpenRig-specific).
Chapter 1 - Coding Styles and Idioms
1.1 Borrowing Over Cloning
Rust’s ownership system encourages borrow (&T) instead of cloning (T.clone()).
❗ Performance recommendation
✅ When to Clone:
- You need to change the object AND preserve the original object (immutable snapshots).
- When you have
Arc or Rc pointers.
- When data is shared across threads, usually
Arc.
- Avoid massive refactoring of non performance critical code.
- When caching results (dummy example below):
fn get_config(&self) -> Config {
self.cached_config.clone()
}
- When the underlying API expects Owned Data.
🚨 Clone traps to avoid:
- Auto-cloning inside loops
.map(|x| x.clone), prefer to call .cloned() or .copied() at the end of the iterator.
- Cloning large data structures like
Vec<T> or HashMap<K, V>.
- Clone because of bad API design instead of adjusting lifetimes.
- Prefer
&[T] instead of Vec<T> or &Vec<T>.
- Prefer
&str or &String instead of String.
- Prefer
&T instead of T.
- Clone a reference argument, if you need ownership, make it explicit in the arguments for the caller. Example:
fn take_a_borrow(thing: &Thing) {
let thing_cloned = thing.clone(); // the caller should have passed ownership instead
}
✅ Prefer borrowing:
fn process(name: &str) {
println!(“Hello {name}”);
}
let user = String::from(“foo”);
process(&user);
❌ Avoid redundant cloning:
fn process_string(name: String) {
println!(“Hello {name}”);
}
let user = String::from(“foo”);
process(user.clone()); // Unnecessary clone
1.2 When to pass by value? (Copy trait)
Not all types should be passed by reference (&T). If a type is small and it is cheap to copy, it is often better to pass it by value. Rust makes it explicit via the Copy trait.
✅ When to pass by value, Copy:
- The type implements
Copy (u32, bool, f32, small structs).
- The cost of moving the value is negligible.
fn increment(x: u32) -> u32 {
x + 1
}
let num = 1;
let new_num = increment(num); // `num` still usable after this point
❓ Which structs should be Copy?
- When to consider declaring
Copy on your own types:
- All fields are
Copy themselves.
- The struct is
small, up to 2 (maybe 3) words of memory or 24 bytes (each word is 64 bits/8bytes).
- The struct represents a “plain data object”, without resourcing to ownership (no heap allocations. Example:
Vec and Strings).
❗Rust Arrays are stack allocated. Which means they can be copied if their underlying type is Copy, but this will be allocated in the program stack which can easily become a stack overflow. More on Chapter 3 - Stack vs Heap
For reference, each primitive type size in bytes:
Integers:
| Type | Size |
|---|
| i8 u8 | 1 byte |
| i16 u16 | 2 bytes |
| i32 u32 | 4 bytes |
| i64 u64 | 8 bytes |
| isize usize | Arch |
| i128 u128 | 16 bytes |
Floating Point:
| Type | Size |
|---|
| f32 | 4 bytes |
| f64 | 8 bytes |
Other:
| Type | Size |
|---|
| bool | 1 byte |
| char | 4 bytes |
✅ Good struct to derive Copy:
#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone)]
struct Point {
x: f32,
y: f32,
z: f32
}
❌ Bad struct to derive Copy:
#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
struct BadIdea {
age: i32,
name: String, // String is not `Copy`
}
❓Which Enums should be Copy?
- If your enum acts like tags and atoms.
- The enum payloads are all
Copy.
- ❗Enums size are based on their largest element.
✅ Good Enum to derive
#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone)]
enum Direction {
North,
South,
East,
West,
}
1.3 Handling Option<T> and Result<T, E>
Rust 1.65 introduced a better way to safely unpack Option and Result types with the let Some(x) = … else { … } or let Ok(x) = … else { … } when you have a default return value, continue or break default else case. It allows early returns when the missing case is expected and normal, not exceptional.
✅ Cases to use each pattern matching for Option and Return
- Use
match when you want to pattern match against the inner types T and E
match self {
Ok(Direction::South) => { … },
Ok(Direction::North) => { … },
Ok(Direction::East) => { … },
Ok(Direction::West) => { … },
Err(E::One) => { … },
Err(E::Two) => { … },
}
match self {
Some(3|5) => { … }
Some(x) if x > 10 => { … }
Some(x) => { … }
None => { … }
}
- Use
match when your type is transformed into something more complex Like Result<T, E> becoming Result<Option<U>, E>.
match self {
Ok(t) => Ok(Some(t)),
Err(E::Empty) => Ok(None),
Err(err) => Err(err),
}
- Use
let PATTERN = EXPRESSION else { DIVERGING_CODE; } when the divergent code doesn’t need to know about the failed pattern matches or doesn’t need extra computation:
let Some(&Direction::North) = self.direction.as_ref() else {
return Err(DirectionNotAvailable(self.direction));
}
- Use
let PATTERN = EXPRESSION else { DIVERGING_CODE; } when you want to break or continue a pattern match
for x in self {
let Some(x) = x else {
continue;
}
}
- Use
if let PATTERN = EXPRESSION else { DIVERGING_CODE; } when DIVERGING_CODE needs extra computation:
if let Some(x) = self.next() {
// computation
} else {
// computation when `None/Err` or not matched
}
❗If you don’t care about the value of the Err case, please use ? to propagate the Err to the caller.
❌ Bad Option/Return pattern matching:
- Conversion between Result and Option (prefer
.ok(),.ok_or(), and ok_or_else())
match self {
Ok(t) => Some(t),
Err(_) => None
}
if let PATTERN = EXPRESSION else { DIVERGING_CODE; } when divergent code is a default or pre-computed value (prefer let PATTERN = EXPRESSION else { DIVERGING_CODE; }):
if let Some(values) = self.next() {
// computation
(Some(..), values)
} else {
(None, Vec::new())
}
- Using
unwrap or expect outside tests:
let port = config.port.unwrap();
1.4 Prevent Early Allocation
When dealing with functions like or, map_or, unwrap_or, ok_or, consider that they have special cases for when memory allocation is required, like creating a new string, creating a collection or even calling functions that manage some state, so they can be replaced with their _else counter-part:
✅ Good cases
let x = None;
assert_eq!(x.ok_or(ParseError::ValueAbsent), Err(ParseError::ValueAbsent));
let x = None;
assert_eq!(x.ok_or_else(|| ParseError::ValueAbsent(format!("this is a value {x}"))), Err(ParseError::ValueAbsent));
let x: Result<_, &str> = Ok("foo");
assert_eq!(x.map_or(42, |v| v.len()), 3);
let x : Result<_, String> = Ok("foo");
assert_eq!(x.map_or_else(|e|format!("Error: {e}"), |v| v.len()), 3);
let x = "1,2,3,4";
assert_eq!(x.parse_to_option_vec.unwrap_or_else(Vec::new), Ok(vec![1, 2, 3, 4]));
❌ Bad cases
let x : Result<_, String> = Ok("foo");
assert_eq!(x.map_or(format!("Error with uninformed content"), |v| v.len()), 3);
let x = "1,2,3,4";
assert_eq!(x.parse_to_option_vec.unwrap_or(Vec::new()), Ok(vec![1, 2, 3, 4])); // could be replaced with `.unwrap_or_default`
let x = None;
assert_eq!(x.ok_or(ParseError::ValueAbsent(format!("this is a value {x}"))), Err(ParseError::ValueAbsent));
Mapping Err
When dealing with Result::Err, sometimes is necessary to log and transform the Err into a more abstract or more detailed error, this can be done with inspect_err and map_err:
let x = Err(ParseError::InvalidContent(...));
x
.inspect_err(|err| tracing::error!("function_name: {err}"))
.map_err(|err| GeneralError::from(("function_name", err)))?;
1.5 Iterator, .iter vs for
First we need to understand a basic loop with each one of them. Let's consider the following problem, we need to sum all even numbers between 0 and 10 incremented by 1:
let mut sum = 0;
for x in 0..=10 {
if x % 2 == 0 {
sum += x + 1;
}
}
let sum: i32 = (0..=10)
.filter(|x| x % 2 == 0)
.map(|x| x + 1)
.sum();
Both versions do the same thing and are correct and idiomatic, but each shines in different contexts.
When to prefer for loops
- When you need early exits (
break, continue, return).
- Simple iteration with side-effects (e.g., logging, IO)
- logging can be done correctly in
Iterators using inspect and inspect_err functions.
- When readability matters more than simplicity or chaining.
Example:
for value in &mut value {
if *value == 0 {
break;
}
*value += fancy_equation();
}
When to prefer iterators loops (.iter() and .into_iter())
- When you are
transforming collections or Option/Results.
- You can compose multiple steps elegantly.
- No need for early exits.
- You need support for indexed values with
.enumerate.
let values: Vec<_> = vec.into_iter()
.enumerate()
.filter(|(_index, value)| value % 2 == 0)
.map(|(index, value)| value % index)
.collect()
- You need to use collections functions like
.windows or chunks.
- You need to combine data from multiple sources and don't want to allocate multiple collections.
- Iterators can be combined with
for loops:
for value in vec.iter().enumerate()
.filter(|(index, value)| value % index == 0) {
// ...
}
❗REMEMBER: Iterators are Lazy
.iter, .map, .filter don't do anything until you call its consumer, e.g. .collect, .sum, .for_each.- Lazy Evaluation means that iterator chains are fused into one loop at compile time.
🚨 Anti-patterns to AVOID
- Don't chain without formatting. Prefer each chained function on its own line with the correct indentation (
rustfmt should take care of this).
- Don't chain if it makes the code unreadable.
- Avoid needlessly collect/allocate of a collection (e.g. vector) just to throw it away later by some larger operation or by another iteration.
- Prefer
iter over into_iter unless you don't need the ownership of the collection.
- Prefer
iter over into_iter for collections that inner type implements Copy, e.g. Vec<T: Copy>.
- For summing numbers prefer
.sum over .fold. .sum is specialized for summing values, so the compiler knows it can make optimizations on that front, while fold has a blackbox closure that needs to be applied at every step. If you need to sum by an initial value, just added in the expression let my_sum = [1, 2, 3].sum() + 3.
1.6 Comments: Context, not Clutter
"Context are for why, not what or how"
Well-written Rust code, with expressive types and good naming, often speaks for itself. Many high-quality codebases thrive on few or no comments. And that's a good thing.
Still, there are moments where code alone isn't enough - when there are performance quirks, external constraints, or non-obvious tradeoffs that require a nudge to the reader. In those cases, a concise comment can prevent hours of head-scratching or searching git history.
✅ Good comments
// SAFETY: We have checked that the pointer is valid and non-null. @Function xyz.
unsafe { std::ptr::copy_nonoverlapping(src, dst, len); }
// This algorithm is a fast square root approximation
const THREE_HALVES: f32 = 1.5;
fn q_rsqrt(number: f32 ) -> f32 {
let mut i: i32 = number.to_bits() as i32;
i = 0x5F375A86_i32.wrapping_sub(i >> 1);
let y = f32::from_bits(i as u32);
y * (THREE_HALVES - (number * 0.5 * y * y))
}
- Clear code beats comments. However, when the why isn't obvious, say it plainly - or link to where:
// PERF: Generating the root store per subgraph caused high TLS startup latency on MacOS
// This works as a caching alternative. See: [ADR-123](link/to/adr-123)
let subgraph_tls_root_store: RootCertStore = configuration
.tls
.subgraph
.all
.create_certificate_store()
.transpose()?
.unwrap_or_else(crate::services::http::HttpClientService::native_roots_store);
let connector_tls_root_store: RootCertStore = configuration
.tls
.connector
.all
.create_certificate_store()
.transpose()?
.unwrap_or_else(crate::services::http::HttpClientService::native_roots_store);
- ❗ More use cases to come in their appropriate sections.
❌ Bad comments
- Wall-of-text explanations: long comments and multiline comments
// Lorem Ipsum is simply dummy text of the printing and typesetting industry.
// Lorem Ipsum has been the industry's standard dummy text ever since the 1500s,
// when an unknown printer took a galley
fn do_something_odd() {
…
}
Prefer /// doc comment if it's describing the function.
- Comments that could be better represented as functions or are plain obvious
fn computation() {
// increment i by 1
i += 1;
}
✅ Breaking up long functions over commenting them
If you find yourself writing a long comment explaining "what", "how" or "each step" in a function, it might be time to split it. So the suggestion is to refactor. This can be beneficial not only for readability, but testability:
❌ Instead of:
fn process_request(request: T) {
// We first need to validate request, because of corner case x, y, z
// As the payload can only be decoded when they are valid
// Then we can perform authorization on the payload
// lastly with the authorized payload we can dispatch to handler
}
✅ Prefer
fn process_request(request: T) -> Result<(), Error> {
validate_request_headers(&request)?;
let payload = decode_payload(&request);
authorize(&payload)?;
dispatch_to_handler(payload)
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
#[test]
fn validate_request_happy_path() { ... }
#[test]
fn validate_request_fails_on_x() { ... }
#[test]
fn validate_request_fails_on_y() { ... }
#[test]
fn decode_validated_request() { ... }
#[test]
fn authorize_payload_xyz() { ... }
}
Let structure and naming replace commentary, and enhance its documentation with tests as living documentation.
📝 TODOs are not comments - track them properly
Avoid leaving lingering // TODO: Lorem Ipsum comments in the code. Instead:
- Turn them into Jira or Github Issues.
- If needed, to avoid future confusion, reference the issue in the code and the code in the issue.
// See issue #123: support hyper 2.0
This helps keeping the code clean and making sure tasks are not forgotten.
Comments as Living Documentation
There are a few gotchas when calling comments "living documentation":
- Code evolves.
- Context changes.
- Comments get stale.
- Many large comments make people avoid reading them.
- Team becomes fearful of delete irrelevant comments.
If you find a comment, don't trust it blindly. Read it in context. If it's wrong or outdated, fix or remove it. A misleading comment is worse than no comments at all.
Comments should bother you - they demand re-verification, just like stale tests.
When deeper justification is needed, prefer to:
- Link to a Design Doc or an ADR, business logic lives well in design docs while performance tradeoffs live well in ADRs.
- Move runtime example and usage docs into Rust Docs,
/// doc comment, where they can be tested and kept up-to-date by tools like cargo doc.
Doc-comments and Doc-testing, /// and //! in Chapter 8 - Comments vs Documentation
1.7 Use Declarations - "imports"
Different languages have different ways of sorting their imports, in the Rust ecosystem the standard way is:
std (core, alloc would also fit here).- External crates (what is in your Cargo.toml
[dependencies]).
- Workspace crates (workspace member crates).
- This module
super::.
- This module
crate::.
// std
use std::sync::Arc;
// external crates
use chrono::Utc;
use juniper::{FieldError, FieldResult};
use uuid::Uuid;
// crate code lives in workspace
use broker::database::PooledConnection;
// super:: / crate::
use super::schema::{Context, Payload};
use super::update::convert_publish_payload;
use crate::models::Event;
Some enterprise solutions opt to include their core packages after std, so all external packages that start with enterprise name are located before the others:
// std
use std::sync::Arc;
// enterprise external crates
use enterprise_crate_name::some_module::SomeThing;
// external crates
use chrono::Utc;
use juniper::{FieldError, FieldResult};
use uuid::Uuid;
// crate code lives in workspace
use broker::database::PooledConnection;
// super:: / crate::
use super::schema::{Context, Payload};
use super::update::convert_publish_payload;
use crate::models::Event;
One way of not having to manually control this is using the following arguments in your rustfmt.toml:
reorder_imports = true
imports_granularity = "Crate"
group_imports = "StdExternalCrate"
As of Rust version 1.88, it is necessary to execute rustfmt in nightly to correctly reorder code cargo +nightly fmt.
Chapter 2 - Clippy and Linting Discipline
Be sure to have cargo clippy installed with your rust compiler, run cargo clippy -V in your terminal for a rust project and you should get something like this clippy 0.1.86 (05f9846f89 2025-03-31). If terminal fails to show a clippy version, please run the following code rustup update && rustup component add clippy.
Clippy documentation can be found here.
2.1 Why care about linting?
Rust compiler is a powerful tool that catches many mistakes. However, some more in-depth analysis require extra tools, that is where cargo clippy clippy comes into to play. Clippy checks for:
- Performance pitfalls.
- Style issues.
- Redundant code.
- Potential bugs.
- Non-idiomatic Rust.
2.2 Always run cargo clippy
Add the following to your daily workflow:
$ cargo clippy --all-targets --all-feature --locked -- -D warnings
--all-targets: checks library, tests, benches and examples.--all-feature: checks code for all features enabled, auto solves conflicting features.--locked: Requires Cargo.lock to be up-to-date, can be solved with $ cargo update.-D warnings: treats warnings as errors
Potential additions elements to add:
-- -W clippy::pedantic: lints which are rather strict or have occasional false positives.-- -W clippy::nursery: Optionally can be added to check for new lints that are still under development.- ❗ Add this to your Makefile, Justfile, xtask or CI Pipeline.
Example at ApolloGraphQL
In the Router project there is a xtask configured for linting that can be executed with cargo xtask lint.
2.3 Important Clippy Lints to Respect
2.4 Fix warnings, don't silence them!
NEVER just #[allow(clippy::lint_something)] unless:
- You truly understand why the warning happens and you have a reason why it is better that way.
- You document why it is being ignored.
- ❗ Don't use
allow, but expect, it will give a warning in case the lint is not true anymore, #[expect(clippy::lint_something)].
Example:
// Faster matching is preferred over size efficiency
#[expect(clippy::large_enum_variant)]
enum Message {
Code(u8),
Content([u8; 1024]),
}
The fix would be:
// Faster matching is preferred over size efficiency
#[expect(clippy::large_enum_variant)]
enum Message {
Code(u8),
Content(Box<[u8; 1024]>),
}
Handling false positives
Sometimes Clippy complains even when your code is correct, in those cases there are two solutions:
- Try to refactor the code, so it improves the warning.
- Locally override the lint with
#[expect(clippy::lint_name)] and a comment with the reason.
- Avoid global overrides, unless it is core crate issue, a good example of this is the Bevy Engine that has a set of lints that should be allowed by default.
2.5 Configure workspace/package lints
In your Cargo.toml file it is possible to determine which lints and their priorities over each other. In case of 2 or more conflicting lints, the higher priority one will be chosen. Example configuration for a package:
[lints.rust]
future-incompatible = "warn"
nonstandard_style = "deny"
[lints.clippy]
all = { level = "deny", priority = 10 }
redundant_clone = { level = "deny", priority = 9 }
manual_while_let_some = { level = "deny", priority = 4 }
pedantic = { level = "warn", priority = 3 }
And for a workspace:
[workspace.lints.rust]
future-incompatible = "warn"
nonstandard_style = "deny"
[workspace.lints.clippy]
all = { level = "deny", priority = 10 }
redundant_clone = { level = "deny", priority = 9 }
manual_while_let_some = { level = "deny", priority = 4 }
pedantic = { level = "warn", priority = 3 }
Chapter 3 - Performance Mindset
The golden rule of performance work:
Don't guess, measure.
Rust code is often already pretty fast - don't "optimize" without evidence. Optimize only after finding bottlenecks.
A good first steps
- Use
--release flag on you builds (might sound dummy, but it is quite common to hear people complaining that their Rust code is slower than their X language code, and 99% of the time is because they didn't use the --release flag).
$ cargo clippy -- -D clippy::perf gives you important tips on best practices for performance.cargo bench is a cargo tool to create micro-benchmarks and test different code solutions. Write a test scenario and bench you solution against the original code, if your improvement is larger than 5%, might be a good performance improvement.cargo flamegraph a powerful profiler for Rust code. For MacOS, samply might be a better DX option.
Further reading on Benchmarking:
3.1 Flamegraph
Flamegraph helps you visualize how much time CPU spent on each task.
# Installing flamegraph
cargo install flamegraph
# cargo support provided through the cargo-flamegraph binary!
# defaults to profiling cargo run --release
cargo flamegraph
# by default, `--release` profile is used,
# but you can override this:
cargo flamegraph --dev
# if you'd like to profile a specific binary:
cargo flamegraph --bin=stress2
# Profile unit tests.
# Note that a separating `--` is necessary if `--unit-test` is the last flag.
cargo flamegraph --unit-test -- test::in::package::with::single::crate
cargo flamegraph --unit-test crate_name -- test::in::package::with::multiple:crate
# Profile integration tests.
cargo flamegraph --test test_name
# Run criterion benchmark
# Note that the last --bench is required for `criterion 0.3` to run in benchmark mode, instead of test mode.
cargo flamegraph --bench some_benchmark --features some_features -- --bench
# Run workspace example
cargo flamegraph --example some_example --features some_features
❗ Always run your profiles with --release enabled, the --dev flag isn't realistic as it doesn't have optimizations enabled.
The result will look like the following:
- The
y-axis shows the stack depth number. When looking at a flamegraph, the main function of your program will be closer to the bottom, and the called functions will be stacked on top, with the functions that they call stacked on top of them.
The width of each box shows the total time that that function is on the CPU or is part of the call stack. If a function's box is wider than others, that means that it consumes more CPU per execution than other functions, or that it is called more than other functions.
❗ The color of each box isn't significant, and is chosen at random.
🚨 Remember
- Thick stacks: heavy CPU usage
- Thin stacks: low intensity (cheap)
3.2 Avoid Redundant Cloning
Cloning is cheap... until it isn't
In sections Borrowing over Cloning and Important Clippy lints to respect we mentioned the impacts of cloning and the relevant clippy lint redundant_clone, so in this section we will explore a bit "when to pass ownership".
- 🚨 If you really need to clone, leave it to the last moment.
When to pass ownership?
- Only
.clone() if you truly need a new owned copy. A few examples:
- Crate API Design requires owned data.
- Have overloaded
std::ops but still need ownership to the old data:
use std::ops::Add;
#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, PartialEq)]
struct Point {
x: i32,
y: i32,
}
impl Add for Point {
type Output = Self;
fn add(self, other: Self) -> Self {
Self {
x: self.x + other.x,
y: self.y + other.y,
}
}
}
assert_eq!(Point { x: 1, y: 0 } + Point { x: 2, y: 3 },
Point { x: 3, y: 3 });
- Need to do comparison snapshots or due to API you need multiple owned instances of the data.
fn snapshot(a: &MyValue, b:&MyValue) -> MyValueDiff {
a - b
}
impl Sub for MyValue {
type Output = MyValueDiff;
fn sub(self, other: Self) -> MyValue {
...
}
}
fn main() {
let mut a = MyValue::default();
let b = a.clone();
a.magical_update();
println!("{:?}", snapshot(&a, &b));
}
- You have reference counted pointers (
Arc, Rc).
- You have small structs that are to big to
Copy but as costly as std::collections. An example is HTTP client like hyper_util::client::legacy::Client that cloning allows you to share the connection pool.
- You have a chained struct modifier that needs owned mutation, some builders require owned mutation, but most custom builders can be done with
pub fn with_xyz(&mut self, value: Xyz) -> &mut Self.
// Inline `HashMap` insertion extension
fn insert_owned(mut self, key: K, value: V) -> Self {
self.insert(key, value);
self
}
- Ownership can also be a good way to model business logic / state. For example:
let not_validated: String = ...;// some user source
let validated = Validate::try_from(not_validated)?;
// Technically that `try_from` maybe didn't need ownership, but taking it lets us model intent
When NOT to pass ownership?
- Prefer API designs that take reference (
fn process(values: &[T])), instead of ownership (fn process(values: Vec<T>)).
- If you only need read access to elements, prefer
.iter or slices:
for item in &some_vec {
...
}
- You need to mutate data that is owned by another thread, use
&mut MyStruct.
Use Cow for Maybe Owned data
Sometimes you don't actually need owned data, but that is not clear from the API perspective, so using std::borrow::Cow is a way to efficiently address this case:
use std::borrow::Cow;
fn hello_greet(name: Cow<'_, str>) {
println!("Hello {name}");
}
hello_greet(Cow::Borrowed("Julia"));
hello_greet(Cow::Owned("Naomi".to_string()));
3.3 Stack vs Heap: Be size-smart!
✅ Good Practices
- Keep small types (
impl Copy, usize, bool, etc) on the stack.
- Avoid passing huge types (
> 512 bytes) by value or transferring ownership. Prefer pass by reference (e.g. &T and &mut T).
- Heap allocate recursive data structures:
enum OctreeNode<T> {
Node(T),
Children(Box<[Node<T>; 8]>),
}
- Return small types by value, types that implement
Copy or a cheaply Cloned are efficient to return by value (e.g. struct Vector2 {x: f32, y: f32}).
❗ Be Mindful
- Only use
#[inline] when benchmark proves beneficial, Rust is already pretty good at inlining without hints.
- Avoid massive stack allocations, box them. Example
let buffer: Box<[u8; 65536]> = Box::new(..) would first allocate [u8; 65536] on the stack then box it, a non-const solution to this would be let buffer: Box<[u8]> = vec![0; 65536].into_boxed_slice().
- For large
const arrays, considering using crate smallvec as it behaves like an array, but is smart enough to allocate large arrays on the heap.
3.4 Iterators and Zero-Cost Abstractions
Rust iterators are lazy, but eventually compiled away into very efficient tight loops that are only called when consumed. Chaining .filter(), .map(), .rev(), .skip(), .take(), .collect() usually doesn't cost extra and the compiler can reason well enough how to optimize them.
- Prefer
iterators over manual for loops when working with collections, the compiler can optimize them better than manually doing it.
- Calling
.iter() only creates a reference to the original collection, this allows you to hold multiple iterators of the same collection.
❗ Avoid creating intermediate collections unless it is really needed:
- Consider that
process accepts an iterator.
- ❌ BAD - useless intermediate collection:
let doubled: Vec<_> = items.iter().map(|x| x * 2).collect();
process(doubled);
- ✅ GOOD - pass the iterator (
fn process(arg: impl Iterator<Item = u32>)):
let doubled_iter = items.iter().map(|x| x * 2);
process(doubled_iter);
Chapter 4 - Errors Handling
Rust enforces a strict error handling approach, but how you handle them defines where your code feels ergonomic, consistent and safe - as opposing cryptic and painful. This chapter dives into best practices for modeling and managing fallible operations across libraries and binaries.
Even if you decide to crash you application with unwrap or expect, Rust forces you to declare that intentionally.
4.1 Prefer Result, avoid panic 🫨
Rust has a powerful type that wraps fallible data, Result, this allows us to handle Error cases according to our needs and manage the state of the application based on that.
- If your function can fail, prefer to return a
Result:
fn divide(x: f64, y: f64) -> Result<f64, DivisionError> {
if y == 0.0 {
Err(DivisionError::DividedByZero)
} else {
Ok(x / y)
}
}
- Use
panic! only in unrecoverable conditions - typically tests, assertions, bugs or a need to crash the application for some explicit reason.
- There are 3 relevant macros that can replace
panic! in appropriate conditions:
todo!, similar to panic, but alerts the compiler that you are aware that there is code missing.unreachable!, you have reasoned about the code block and are sure that condition xyz is not possible and if ever becomes possible you want to be alerted.unimplemented!, specially useful for alerting that a block is not yet implement with a reason.
4.2 Avoid unwrap/expect in Production
Although expect is preferred to unwrap, as it can have context, they should be avoided in production code as there are smarter alternatives to them. Considering that, they should be used in the following scenarios:
- In tests, assertions or test helper functions.
- When failure is impossible.
- When the smarter options can't handle the specific case.
🚨 Alternative ways of handling unwrap/expect:
- If your
Result (or Option) can have a predefined early return value in case of Result::Err, that doesn't need to know the Err value, use let Ok(..) = else { return ... } pattern, as it helps with flatten functions:
let Ok(json) = serde_json::from_str(&input) else {
return Err(MyError::InvalidJson);
}
- If your
Result (or Option) needs error recovery in case of Result::Err, that doesn't need to know the Err value, use if let Ok(..) else { ... } pattern:
if let Ok(json) = serde_json::from_str(&input) else {
...
} else {
Err(do_something_with_input(&input))
}
- Functions that can have to handle
Option::None values are recommended to return Result<T, E>, where E is a crate or module level error, like the examples above.
- Lastly
unwrap_or, unwrap_or_else or unwrap_or_default, these functions help you create alternative exits to unwrap that manage the uninitialized values.
4.3 thiserror for Crate level errors
Deriving Error manually is verbose and error prone, the rust ecosystem has a really good crate to help with this, thiserror. It allows you to create error types that easily implement From trait as well as easy error message (Display), improving developer experience while working seamlessly with ? and integrating with std::error::Error:
#[derive(Debug, thiserror::Error)]
pub enum MyError {
#[error("Network Timeout")]
Timeout,
#[error("Invalid data: {0}")]
InvalidData(String),
#[error(transparent)]
Serialization(#[from] serde_json::Error),
#[error("Invalid request information. Header: {headers}, Metadata: {metadata}")]
InvalidRequest {
headers: Headers,
metadata: Metadata
}
}
Error Hierarchies and Wrapping
For layered systems the best practice is to use nested enum/struct errors with #[from]:
use crate::database::DbError;
use crate::external_services::ExternalHttpError;
#[derive(Debug, thiserror::Error)]
pub enum ServiceError {
#[error("Database handler error: {0}")]
Db(#[from] DbError),
#[error("External services error: {0}")]
ExternalServices(#[from] ExternalHttpError)
}
4.4 Reserve anyhow for Binaries
anyhow is an amazing crate, and quite useful for projects that are beginning and need accelerated speed. However, there is a turning point where it just painfully propagates through your code, considering this, anyhow is recommended only for binaries, where ergonomic error handling is needed and there is no need for precise error types:
use anyhow::{Context, Result, anyhow};
fn main() -> Result<Config> {
let content = std::fs::read_to_string("config.json")
.context("Failed to read config file")?;
Config::from_str(&content)
.map_err(|err| anyhow!("Config parsing error: {err}"))
}
🚨 Anyhow Gotchas
- Keeping the
context and anyhow strings up-to-date in all code base is harder than keeping thiserror messages as you don't have a single point of entry.
anyhow::Result erases context that a caller might need, so avoid using it in a library.- test helper functions can use
anyhow with little to no issues.
4.5 Use ? to Bubble Errors
Prefer using ? over verbose alternatives like match chains:
fn handle_request(req: &Request) -> Result<ValidatedRequest, RequestValidationError> {
validate_headers(req)?;
validate_body_format(req)?;
validate_credentials(req)?;
let body = Body::try_from(req)?;
Ok(ValidatedRequest::try_from((req, body))?)
}
In case error recovery is needed, use or_else, map_err, if let Ok(..) else. To inspect or log your error, use inspect_err.
4.6 Unit Test should exercise errors
While many errors don't implement PartialEq and Eq, making it hard to do direct assertions between them, it is possible to check the error messages with format! or to_string(), making the errors meaningful and test validated:
#[test]
fn error_does_not_implement_partial_eq() {
let err = divide(10., 0.0).unwrap_err();
assert_eq!(err.to_string(), "division by zero");
}
#[test]
fn error_implements_partial_eq() {
let err = process(my_value).unwrap_err();
assert_eq!(
err,
MyError {
..
}
)
}
4.7 Important Topics
Custom Error Structs
Sometimes you don't need an enum to handle your errors, as there is only one type of error that your module can have. This can be solved with struct Errors:
#[derive(Debug, thiserror::Error, PartialEq)]
#[error("Request failed with code `{code}`: {message}")]
struct HttpError {
code: u16,
message: String
}
Async Errors
When using async runtimes, like Tokio, make sure that your errors implement Send + Sync + 'static where needed, specially in tasks or across .await boundaries:
#[tokio::main]
async fn main() -> Result<(), Box<dyn std::error::Error + Send + Sync>> {
...
Ok(())
}
Avoid Box<dyn std::error::Error> in libraries unless it is really needed
Chapter 5 - Automated Testing
Tests are not just for correctness. They are the first place people look to understand how your code works.
- Tests in rust are declared with the attribute macro
#[test]. Most code editors can compile and run the functions declared under the macro individually or blocks of them.
- Test can have special compilation flags with
#[cfg(test)]. Also executable in code editors if it contained #[test], it is a good way to mock complicated functions or override traits.
5.1 Tests as Living Documentation
In Rust, as in many other languages, tests often show how the functions are meant to be used. If a test is clear and targeted, it's often more helpful than reading the function body, when combined with other tests, they serve as living documentation.
Use descriptive names
In the unit test name we should see the following:
unit_of_work: which function we are calling. The action that will be executed. This is often be the name of the the test mod where the function is being tested.
#[cfg(test)]
mod test {
mod function_name {
#[test]
fn returns_y_when_x() { ... }
}
}
expected_behavior: the set of assertions that we need to verify that the test works.state_that_the_test_will_check: the general arrangement, or setup, of the specific test case.
❌ Don't use a generic name for a test
#[test]
fn test_add_happy_path() {
assert_eq!(add(2, 2), 4);
}
✅ Use a name which reads like a sentence, describing the desired behavior
Alternatively, if you function has too many tests, you can blob them together in a mod, it makes it easier to read and navigate.
// OPTION 1
#[test]
fn process_should_return_blob_when_larger_than_b() {
let a = setup_a_to_be_xyz();
let b = Some(2);
let expected = MyExpectedStruct { ... };
let result = process(a, b).unwrap();
assert_eq!(result, expected);
}
// OPTION 2
mod process {
#[test]
fn should_return_blob_when_larger_than_b() {
let a = setup_a_to_be_xyz();
let b = Some(2);
let expected = MyExpectedStruct { ... };
let result = process(a, b).unwrap();
assert_eq!(result, expected);
}
}
When executing cargo test the test output for each option will look like:
Option 1: process_should_return_blob_when_larger_than_b.
Option 2: process::should_return_blob_when_larger_than_b.
Use modules for organization
Most IDEs can run a single module of tests all together.
The test name in the output will also contain the name of the module.
Together, that means you can use the module name to group related tests together:
#[cfg(test)]
mod test { // IDEs will provide a ▶️ button here
mod process {
#[test] // IDEs will provide a ▶️ button here
fn returns_error_xyz_when_b_is_negative() {
let a = setup_a_to_be_xyz();
let b = Some(-5);
let expected = MyError::Xyz;
let result = process(a, b).unwrap_err();
assert_eq!(result, expected);
}
#[test] // IDEs will provide a ▶️ button here
fn returns_invalid_input_error_when_a_and_b_not_present() {
let a = None;
let b = None;
let expected = MyError::InvalidInput;
let result = process(a, b).unwrap_err();
assert_eq!(result, expected);
}
}
}
Only test one behavior per function
To keep tests clear, they should describe one thing that the unit does.
This makes it easier to understand why a test is failing.
❌ Don't test multiple things in the same test
fn test_thing_parser(...) {
assert!(Thing::parse("abcd").is_ok());
assert!(Thing::parse("ABCD").is_err());
}
✅ Test one thing per test
#[cfg(test)]
mod test_thing_parser {
#[test]
fn lowercase_letters_are_valid() {
assert!(
Thing::parse("abcd").is_ok(),
// Works like `eprintln`, `format` and `println` macros
"Thing parse error: {:?}",
Thing::parse("abcd").unwrap_err()
);
}
#[test]
fn capital_letters_are_invalid() {
assert!(Thing::parse("ABCD").is_err());
}
}
Ok scenarios should have an eprintln of the Err case.
Use very few, ideally one, assertion per test
When there are multiple assertions per test, it's both harder to understand the intended behavior and
often requires many iterations to fix a broken test, as you work through assertions one by one.
❌ Don't include many assertions in one test:
#[test]
fn test_valid_inputs() {
assert!(the_function("a").is_ok());
assert!(the_function("ab").is_ok());
assert!(the_function("ba").is_ok());
assert!(the_function("bab").is_ok());
}
If you are testing separate behaviors, make multiple tests each with descriptive names.
To avoid boilerplate, either use a shared setup function or rstest cases with descriptive test names:
#[rstest]
#[case::single("a")]
#[case::first_letter("ab")]
#[case::last_letter("ba")]
#[case::in_the_middle("bab")]
fn the_function_accepts_all_strings_with_a(#[case] input: &str) {
assert!(the_function(input).is_ok());
}
Considerations when using rstest
- It’s harder for both IDEs and humans to run/locate specific tests.
- Expectation vs condition naming is now visually inverted (expectation first).
5.2 Add Test Examples to your Docs
We will deep dive into docs at a later stage, so in this section we will just briefly go over how to add tests to you docs. Rustdoc can turn examples into executable tests using /// with a few advantages:
- These tests run with
cargo test BUT NOT cargo nextest run. If using nextest, make sure to run cargo t --doc separately.
- They serve both as documentation and correctness checks, and are kept up to date by changes, due to the fact that the compiler checks them.
- No extra testing boilerplate. You can easily hide test sections by prefixing the line with
#.
- ❗ There is no issue if you have test duplication between doc-tests and other non-public facing tests.
/// Helper function that adds any two numeric values together.
/// This function reasons about which would be the correct type to parse based on the type
/// and the size of the numeric value.
///
/// # Examples
///
/// ```rust
/// # use crate_name::generic_add;
/// use num::numeric;
///
/// # assert_eq!(
/// generic_add(5.2, 4) // => 9.2
/// # , 9.2)
///
/// # assert_eq!(
/// generic_add(2, 2.0) // => 4
/// # , 4)
/// ```
This documentation code would look like:
use num::numeric;
generic_add(5.2, 4) // => 9.2
generic_add(2, 2.0) // => 4
5.3 Unit Test vs Integration Tests vs Doc tests
As a general rule, without delving into test pyramid naming, rust has 3 sets of tests:
Unit Test
Tests that go in the same module as the tested unit was declared, this allows the test runner to have visibility over private functions and parent use declarations. They can also consume pub(crate) functions from other modules if needed. Unit tests can be more focused on implementation and edge-cases checks.
- They should be as simple as possible, testing one state and one behavior of the unit. KISS.
- They should test for errors and edge cases.
- Different tests of the same unit can be combined under a single
#[cfg(test)] mod test_unit_of_work {...}, allowing multiple submodules for different units_of_work.
- Try to keep external states/side effects to your API to minimum and focus those tests on the
mod.rs files.
- Tests that are not yet fully implemented can be ignored with the
#[ignore = "optional message"] attribute.
- Tests that intentionally panic should be annotated with the attribute
#[should_panic].
#[cfg(test)]
mod unit_of_work_tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn unit_state_behavior() {
let expected = ...;
let result = ...;
assert_eq!(result, expected, "Failed because {}", result - expected);
}
}
Integration Tests
Tests that go under the tests/ directory, they are entirely external to your library and use the same code as any other code would use, not have access to private and crate level functions, which means they can only test functions on your public API.
Their purpose is to test whether many parts of the code work together correctly, units of code that work correctly on their own could have problems when integrated.
- Test for happy paths and common use cases.
- Allow external states and side effects, testcontainers might help.
- if testing binaries, try to break executable and functions into
src/main.rs and src/lib.rs, respectively.
├── Cargo.lock
├── Cargo.toml
├── src
│ └── lib.rs
└── tests
├── mod.rs
├── common
│ └── mod.rs
└── integration_test.rs
Doc Testing
As mentioned in section 5.2, doc tests should have happy paths, general public API usage and more powerful attributes that improve documentation, like custom CSS for the code blocks.
Attributes:
ignore: tells rust to ignore the code, usually not recommended, if you want just a code formatted text, use text.should_panic: tells the rust compiler that this example block will panic.no_run: compiles but doesn't execute the code, similar to cargo check. Very useful when dealing with side-effects for documentation.compile_fail: Test rustdoc that this block should cause a compilation fail, important when you want to demonstrate wrong use cases.
5.4 How to assert!
Rust comes with 2 macros to make assertions:
assert! for asserting boolean values like assert!(value.is_ok(), "'value' is not Ok: {value:?}")assert_eq! for checking equality between two different values, assert_eq!(result, expected, "'result' differs from 'expected': {}", result.diff(expected)).
🚨 assert! reminders
- Rust asserts support formatted strings, like the previous examples, those strings will be printed in case of failure, so it is a good practice to add what the actual state was and how it differs from the expected.
- If you don't care about the exact pattern matching value, using
matches! combined with assert! might be a good alternative.
assert!(matches!(error, MyError::BadInput(_), "Expected `BadInput`, found {error}"));
- Use
#[should_panic] wisely. It should only be used when panic is the desired behavior, prefer result instead of panic.
- There are some other that can enhance your testing experience like:
rstest: fixture based test framework with procedural macros.pretty_assertions: overrides assert_eq and assert_ne, and creates colorful diffs between them.
5.5 Snapshot Testing with cargo insta
When correctness is visual or structural, snapshots tell the story better than asserts.
- Add to your dependencies:
insta = { version = "1.42.2", features = ["yaml"] }
For most real world applications the recommendation is to use YAML snapshots of serializable values. This is because they look best under version control and the diff viewer and support redaction. To use this enable the yaml feature of insta.
- For a better review experience, add the CLI
cargo install cargo-insta.
- Writing a simple test:
fn split_words(s: &str) -> Vec<&str> {
s.split_whitespace().collect()
}
#[test]
fn test_split_words() {
let words = split_words("hello from the other side");
insta::assert_yaml_snapshot!(words);
}
- Run
cargo insta test to execute, and cargo insta review to review conflicts.
To learn more about cargo insta check out its documentation as it is a very complete and well documented tool.
What is snapshot testing?
Snapshot testing compares your output (text, Json, HTML, YAML, etc) against a saved "golden" version. On future runs, the test fails if the output changes, unless humanly approved. It is perfect for:
- Generate code.
- Serializing complex data.
- Rendered HTML.
- CLI output.
❌ What not to test with snapshot
- Very stable, numeric-only or small structured data associated logic (prefer
assert_eq!).
- Critical path logic (prefer precise unit tests).
- Flaky tests, randomly generated output, unless redacted.
- Snapshots of external resources, use mocks and stubs.
5.6 ✅ Snapshot Best Practices
- Named snapshots, it gives meaningful snapshot files names, e.g.
snapshots/this_is_a_named_snapshot.snap
assert_snapshot!("this_is_a_named_snapshot", output);
- Keep snapshots small and clear.
// ✅ Best case:
assert_snapshot!("app_config/http", whole_app_config.http);
// ❌ Worst case:
assert_snapshot!("app_config", whole_app_config); // Huge object
🚨 Avoid snapshotting huge objects
Huge objects become hard to review and reason about.
- Avoid snapshotting simple types (primitives, flat enums, small structs):
// ✅ Better:
assert_eq!(meaning_of_life, 42);
// ❌ OVERKILL:
assert_snapshot!("the_meaning_of_life", meaning_of_life); // meaning_of_life == 42
- Use redactions for unstable fields (randomly generated, timestamps, uuid, etc):
use insta::assert_json_snapshot;
#[test]
fn endpoint_get_user_data() {
let data = http::client.get_user_data();
assert_json_snapshot!(
"endpoints/subroute/get_user_data",
data,
".created_at" => "[timestamp]",
".id" => "[uuid]"
);
}
- Commit your snapshots into git. They will be stored in
snapshots/ alongside your tests.
- Review changes carefully before accepting.
Chapter 6 - Generics, Dynamic Dispatch and Static Dispatch
Static where you can, dynamic where you must
Rust allows you to handle polymorphic code in two ways:
- Generics / Static Dispatch: compile-time, monomorphized per use.
- Trait Objects / Dynamic Dispatch: runtime vtable, single implementation.
Understanding the trade-offs lets you write faster, smaller and more flexible code.
Every programming language has tools for effectively handling the duplication of concepts. In Rust, one such tool is generics: abstract stand-ins for concrete types or other properties. We can express the behavior of generics or how they relate to other generics without knowing what will be in their place when compiling and running the code.
We use generics to create definitions for items like function signatures or structs, which we can then use with many different concrete data types. Let’s first look at how to define functions, structs, enums, and methods using generics. Generics can also be used to implement Type State Pattern and constrain a struct functionality to certain expected types, more on type state on chapter 7.
Generics by Examples.
Generics Performance
You might be wondering whether there is a runtime cost when using generic type parameters. The good news is that using generic types won’t make your program run any slower than it would with concrete types. Rust accomplishes this by performing monomorphization of the code using generics at compile time. Monomorphization is the process of turning generic code into specific code by filling in the concrete types that are used when compiled. The compiler checks for all occurrences of the generic parameter and generates code for the concrete types the generic code is called with.
6.2 Static Dispatch: impl Trait or <T: Trait>
A static dispatch is basically a constrained version of a generics, a trait bounded generic, at compile-time it is able to check if your generic satisfies the declared traits.
✅ Best when:
- You want zero runtime cost, by paying the compile time cost.
- You need tight loops or performance.
- Your types are known at compile time.
- Your are working with single-use implementations (monomorphized).
🏎️ Example: High-performance function with generic
fn specialized_sum<U: Sum + RandomMapping, T: Iterator<Item = U>>(iter: T) -> U {
iter.map(|x| x.random_mapping()).sum()
}
// or, equivalent, more modern
fn specialized_sum<U: Sum + RandomMapping>(iter: impl Iterator<Item = U>) -> U {
iter.map(|x| x.random_mapping()).sum()
}
This is compiled into specialized machine code for each usage, fast and inlined.
6.3 Dynamic Dispatch: dyn Trait
Usually dynamic dispatch is used with some kind of pointer or a reference, like Box<dyn Trait>, Arc<dyn Trait> or &dyn trait.
✅ Best when:
- You absolutely need runtime polymorphism.
- You need to store different implementations in one collection.
- You want to abstract internals behind a stable interface.
- You are writing a plugin-style architecture.
❗ Closer to what you would get in an object oriented language and can have some heavy costs associated to it. Can avoid generic entirely and let you mix types that implement the same traits.
🚚 Example: Heterogeneous collection
trait Animal {
fn greet(&self) -> String;
}
struct Dog;
impl Animal for Dog {
fn greet(&self) -> String {
"woof".to_string()
}
}
struct Cat;
impl Animal for Cat {
fn greet(&self) -> String {
"meow".to_string()
}
}
fn all_animals_greeting(animals: Vec<Box<dyn Animal>>) {
for animal in animals {
println!("{}", animal.greet())
}
}
6.4 Trade-off summary
| Static Dispatch (impl Trait) | Dynamic Dispatch (dyn Trait) |
|---|
| Performance | ✅ Faster, inlined | ❌ Slower: vtable indirection |
| Compile time | ❌ Slower: monomorphization | ✅ Faster: shared code |
| Binary size | ❌ Larger: per-type codegen | ✅ Smaller |
| Flexibility | ❌ Rigid, one type at a time | ✅ Can mix types in collections |
| Use in trait fn() | ❌ Traits must be object-safe | ✅ Works with trait objects |
| Errors | ✅ Clearer | ❌ Erased types can confuse errors |
- Prefer generics/static dispatch when you control the call site and want performance.
- Use dynamic dispatch when you need abstraction, plugins or mixed types. 🚨 Runtime cost.
- If you are not sure, start with generics, trait bound them - then use
Box<dyn Trait> when flexibility outweighs speed.
Favor static dispatch until your trait needs to live behind a pointer.
6.5 Best Practices for Dynamic Dispatch
Dynamic dispatch Ptr<dyn Trait> is a powerful tool, but it also has significant performance trade-offs. You should only reach for it when type erasure or runtime polymorphism are essential. It is important to know when you need Trait Objects:
✅ Use Dynamic Dispatch When:
- You need heterogeneous types in a collection:
fn all_animals_greeting(animals: Vec<Box<dyn Animal>>) {
for animal in animals {
println!("{}", animal.greet())
}
}
- You want runtime plugins or hot-swappable components.
- You want to abstract internals from the caller (library design).
❌ Avoid Dynamic Dispatch When:
- You control the concrete types.
- You are writing code in performance critical paths.
- You can express the same logic in other ways while keeping simplicity, e.g. generics.
6.6 🚨 Trait Objects Ergonomics
- Prefer
&dyn Trait over Box<dyn Trait> when you don't need ownership.
- Use
Arc<dyn Trait + Send + Sync> for shared access across threads.
- Don't use
dyn Trait if the trait has methods that return Self.
- Avoid boxing too early. Don't box inside structs unless you are sure it'll be beneficial or is required (recursive).
// ✅ Use generics when possible
struct Renderer<B: RenderBackend> {
backend: B
}
// ❌ Premature Boxing
struct Renderer {
backend: Box<dyn RenderBackend> // Boxing too early
}
Chapter 7 - Type State Pattern
Models state at compile time, preventing bugs by making illegal states unrepresentable. It takes advantage of the Rust generics and type system to create sub-types that can only be reached if a certain condition is achieved, making some operations illegal at compile time.
Recently it became the standard design pattern of Rust programming. However, it is not exclusive to Rust, as it is achievable and has inspired other languages to do the same swift and typescript.
7.1 What is Type State Pattern?
Type State Pattern is a design pattern where you encode different states of the system as types, not as runtime flags or enums. This allows the compiler to enforce state transitions and prevent illegal actions at compile time. It also improves the developer experience, as developers only have access to certain functions based on the state of the type.
Invalid states become compile errors instead of runtime bugs.
7.2 Why use it?
- Avoids runtime checks for state validity. If you reach certain states, you can make certain assumptions of the data you have.
- Models state transitions as type transitions. This is similar to a state machine, but in compile time.
- Prevents data misuse, e.g. using uninitialized objects.
- Improves API safety and correctness.
- The phantom data field is removed after compilation so no extra memory is allocated.
7.3 Simple Example: File State
Github Example
use std::{io, path::{Path, PathBuf}};
struct FileNotOpened;
struct FileOpened;
#[derive(Debug)]
struct File<State> {
/// Path to the opened file
path: PathBuf,
/// Open `File` handler
handle: Option<std::fs::File>,
/// Type state manager
_state: std::marker::PhantomData<State>
}
impl File<FileNotOpened> {
/// `open` is the only entry point for this struct.
/// * When called with a valid path, it will return a `File<FileOpened>` with a valid `handler` and `path`
/// * `open` serves as an alternative to `new` and `defaults` methods (usable when your struct needs valid data to exist).
fn open(path: &Path) -> io::Result<File<FileOpened>> {
// If file is invalid, it will return `std::io::Error`
let file = std::fs::File::open(path)?;
Ok(
File {
path: path.to_path_buf(),
// Always valid
handle: Some(file),
_state: std::marker::PhantomData::<FileOpened>
}
)
}
}
impl File<FileOpened> {
/// Reads the content of the `File` as a `String`.
/// `read` can only be called by state `File<FileOpened>`
fn read(&mut self) -> io::Result<String> {
use io::Read;
let mut content = String::new();
let Some(handle)= self.handle.as_mut() else {
unreachable!("Safe to unwrap as state can only be reached when file is open");
};
handle.read_to_string(&mut content)?;
Ok(content)
}
/// Returns the valid path buffer.
fn path(&self) -> &PathBuf {
&self.path
}
}
7.4 Real-World Examples
Builder Pattern with Compile-Time Guarantees
Forces the user to set required fields before calling .build().
Github Example
A type-state pattern can have more than one associated states:
use std::marker::PhantomData;
struct MissingName;
struct NameSet;
struct MissingAge;
struct AgeSet;
#[derive(Debug)]
struct Person {
name: String,
age: u8,
email: Option<String>,
}
struct Builder<HasName, HasAge> {
name: Option<String>,
age: u8,
email: Option<String>,
_name_marker: PhantomData<HasName>,
_age_marker: PhantomData<HasAge>,
}
impl Builder<MissingName, MissingAge> {
fn new() -> Self {
Builder { name: None, age: 0, _name_marker: PhantomData, _age_marker: PhantomData, email: None }
}
fn name(self, name: String) -> Builder<NameSet, MissingAge> {
Builder { name: Some(name), _name_marker: PhantomData::<NameSet>, age: self.age, _age_marker: PhantomData, email: None }
}
fn age(self, age: u8) -> Builder<MissingName, AgeSet> {
Builder { age, _age_marker: PhantomData::<AgeSet>, name: None, _name_marker: PhantomData, email: None }
}
}
impl Builder<NameSet, MissingAge> {
fn age(self, age: u8) -> Builder<NameSet, AgeSet> {
Builder { age, _age_marker: PhantomData::<AgeSet>, name: self.name, _name_marker: PhantomData::<NameSet>, email: None }
}
}
impl Builder<MissingName, AgeSet> {
fn email(self, email: String) -> Self {
Self { name: self.name , age: self.age , email: Some(email) , _name_marker: self._name_marker , _age_marker: self._age_marker }
}
fn name(self, name: String) -> Builder<NameSet, AgeSet> {
Builder { name: Some(name), _name_marker: PhantomData::<NameSet>, age: self.age, _age_marker: PhantomData::<AgeSet>, email: self.email }
}
}
impl Builder<NameSet, AgeSet> {
fn build(self) -> Person {
Person {
name: self.name.unwrap_or_else(|| unreachable!("Name is guarantee to be set")),
age: self.age,
email: self.email,
}
}
}
Although a bit more verbose than a usual builder, this guarantees that all necessary fields are present (note that e-mail is optional field only present in the final builder).
Usage:
// ✅ Valid cases
let person: Person = Builder::new().name("name".to_string()).age(30).build();
let person: Person = Builder::new().age(30).name("name".to_string()).build();
let person: Person = Builder::new().age(30).name("name".to_string()).email("myself@email.com".to_string()).build();
// ❌ Invalid cases
let person: Person = Builder::new().name("name".to_string()).build(); // ❌ Compile error: Age required to `build`
let person: Person = Builder::new().age(30).build(); // ❌ Compile error: Name required to `build`
let person: Person = Builder::new().age(30).email("myself@email.com".to_string()).build(); // ❌ Compile error: Name required to `build`
let person: Person = Builder::new().build();// ❌ Compile error: Name and Age required to `build`
Network Protocol State Machine
Illegal transitions like sending a message before connecting simply don't compile:
// Mock example
struct Disconnected;
struct Connected;
struct Client<State> {
stream: Option<std::net::TcpStream>,
_state: std::marker::PhantomData<State>
}
impl Client<Disconnected> {
fn connect(addr: &str) -> std::io::Result<Client<Connected>> {
let stream = std::net::TcpStream::connect(addr)?;
Ok(Client {
stream: Some(stream),
_state: std::marker::PhantomData::<Connected>
})
}
}
impl Client<Connected> {
fn send(&mut self, msg: &str) {
use std::io::Write;
let Some(stream) = self.stream.as_mut() else {
unreachable!("Stream is guarantee to be set");
};
stream.write_all(msg.as_bytes())
}
}
7.5 Pros and Cons
✅ Use Type-State Pattern When:
- Your want compile-time state safety.
- You need to enforce API constraints.
- You are writing a library/crate that is heavy dependent on variants.
- Your want to replace runtime booleans or enums with type-safe code paths.
- You need compile time correctness.
❌ Avoid it when:
- Writing trivial states like enums.
- Don't need type-safety.
- When it leads to overcomplicated generics.
- When runtime flexibility is required.
