copy-editing

name	copy-editing
description	Performs line-level copy editing for clarity, concision, grammar, consistency, and adherence to style guides. Produces tracked-change markup showing every edit with rationale. Use when the user asks for copy editing, line editing, sentence-level revision, or style-guide-consistent editing. Do NOT use for proofreading only (use proofreading), structural reorganization (use structural-editing), or fact verification (use fact-check-framework).
license	Apache-2.0
metadata	{"author":"foundry-skills","version":"1.0.0","tags":"editing writing guide","category":"writing","subcategory":"editing-refinement","depends":"","disclaimer":"none","difficulty":"intermediate"}

Copy Editing

When to Use

Use this skill when:

• The user explicitly requests copy editing, line editing, or sentence-level revision of a document
• The user asks you to "clean up," "polish," "tighten," or "fix the writing" in a way that implies sentence-level work, not just error correction
• The user wants their text brought into compliance with a specific style guide (AP, Chicago, APA, MLA, AMA, IEEE, house style)
• The user needs consistency enforced across a long document -- terminology, capitalization, number formatting, hyphenation, pronoun reference
• The user wants tracked-change markup showing what was changed and why, not just a silently revised version
• The user is preparing a document for publication, submission, or professional distribution and wants a complete editorial pass
• The user wants to improve clarity and concision without changing the document's structure or argument
• The user needs an editorial pass on a specific section (e.g., the abstract, the executive summary, one chapter) while preserving voice continuity with the rest

Do NOT use this skill when:

• The user only wants error spotting without sentence improvement -- use proofreading instead
• The user wants paragraphs reordered, sections reconceived, or the overall structure evaluated -- use structural-editing instead
• The user wants to shift the document's tone, register, or persona -- use tone-adjustment instead
• The user wants factual claims verified -- use fact-check-framework instead
• The user wants a complete redraft of weak content, not refinement of existing content -- use content-rewriting instead
• The document is a legal contract, regulatory filing, or binding agreement where word choice has legal implications -- specialized legal review is required beyond copy editing scope
• The user wants translation, localization, or cross-cultural adaptation -- those tasks require a different skill set

---

Process

Step 1: Establish Editing Parameters Before Touching the Text

Before making a single edit, confirm or infer the following parameters. If the user has not specified, ask -- or state your assumed defaults explicitly at the top of your report.

• Style guide: The four most common in professional editing are AP Stylebook (journalism, PR, corporate communications), Chicago Manual of Style (books, essays, general publishing), APA Publication Manual (psychology, social sciences, education), and AMA Manual of Style (medicine, biomedical sciences). MLA is used for humanities academic work. IEEE guides engineering and technical journals. If no guide is specified, default to Chicago for book-length documents, AP for journalism and corporate, and APA for academic. State which guide you are applying.
• Edit intensity: Light edits correct clear errors and egregious awkwardness while preserving the author's sentence structures. Medium edits address all correctness issues and meaningfully restructure unclear or wordy sentences. Heavy edits aggressively cut for concision and clarity, restructuring sentences when needed -- but still stop short of rewriting content. Clarify the intensity with the user if ambiguous.
• Voice preservation priority: Ask whether author voice is sacred (some authors want every sentence-level decision preserved) or secondary to clarity (the reader's experience matters more than the author's stylistic choices).
• Document type: Academic, journalistic, technical, business/corporate, creative nonfiction, marketing, legal adjacent, or web/digital. Each has different conventions for sentence length, passive voice tolerance, jargon acceptance, and heading style.
• Target audience: Expert, general educated reader, consumer, or specialist. This determines how much jargon to preserve, how long sentences can run, and how formal the register must be.
• Existing inconsistencies the author knows about: Ask if the author is aware of any known inconsistencies (e.g., "I switched from American to British spelling partway through") so you do not flag intentional choices as errors.

Step 2: Read the Full Document Before Editing

Never begin editing on the first sentence without reading the entire document first. A professional copy editor reads through the document to:

• Identify the author's natural vocabulary preferences (which words do they favor? what terms do they use for key concepts?)
• Note recurring grammatical patterns that may be intentional style choices vs. errors (does the author consistently use serial commas? do they intentionally write in a clipped, short-sentence style?)
• Build a terminology sheet -- the list of proper nouns, technical terms, product names, and specialized vocabulary that must be spelled and capitalized consistently throughout
• Identify the overall sentence rhythm so your edits do not disrupt it
• Spot document-wide consistency issues (does "email" appear as both "email" and "e-mail"? is "healthcare" sometimes one word and sometimes two? is "Figure 1" sometimes "figure 1"?)

For documents longer than 2,000 words, building an internal terminology and consistency checklist before editing is essential.

Step 3: Perform the Editing Pass in Priority Order

Work through categories in the following priority order, because higher-priority changes can make lower-priority changes unnecessary:

Priority 1 -- Correctness (Essential edits):

• Grammatical errors: subject-verb agreement, pronoun-antecedent agreement, dangling modifiers, misplaced modifiers, faulty parallelism, run-on sentences, comma splices, sentence fragments (unless stylistically intentional)
• Usage errors: commonly confused words (affect/effect, fewer/less, compose/comprise, that/which, who/whom, lay/lie, ensure/insure/assure)
• Punctuation errors: comma misuse, apostrophe errors, incorrect semicolon use, missing or excess hyphens in compounds
• Spelling errors: both outright misspellings and wrong-word errors spell-checkers miss (their/there/they're, its/it's, your/you're, principal/principle, discrete/discreet)

Priority 2 -- Clarity (Essential or suggested depending on severity):

• Ambiguous pronoun reference (when "it" or "they" could refer to multiple antecedents)
• Unclear antecedents for "this," "these," "those," "such" -- these demonstratives must always have a clear referent; if not, add a noun ("this decision," "these findings," "such practices")
• Long, embedded sentences where the subject and verb are separated by more than 15-20 words -- consider splitting or restructuring
• Noun stacks (three or more nouns used as modifiers: "employee benefit program cost reduction initiative" -- rewrite with prepositions or relative clauses)
• Passive voice that obscures the agent of an action (passive voice is not inherently wrong -- it is wrong when it hides important information)

Priority 3 -- Concision (Suggested unless extreme):

• Redundant pairs: "each and every," "null and void," "various different," "first and foremost," "totally and completely" -- cut one element
• Wordy prepositional phrases with single-word replacements: "in order to" → "to," "due to the fact that" → "because," "in the event that" → "if," "at this point in time" → "now," "on a daily basis" → "daily," "in regards to" → "regarding," "for the purpose of" → "to"
• Empty openers that delay the subject: "It is important to note that," "It should be mentioned that," "There is a need for" -- cut to the subject
• Throat-clearing: long wind-up sentences before the actual claim ("In today's rapidly changing business environment, organizations of all sizes are finding it increasingly necessary to consider...")
• Nominalizations (turning verbs into nouns): "make a decision" → "decide," "provide assistance" → "assist," "conduct an investigation" → "investigate," "give consideration to" → "consider"

Priority 4 -- Consistency (Essential across the document):

• Terminology: if a concept is called "the intervention" in paragraph 2 and "the treatment" in paragraph 7 and "the protocol" in paragraph 12, standardize unless the variation is intentional
• Hyphenation of compound modifiers: "long-term plan" vs. "long term plan" -- pick one and apply it everywhere; Chicago's hyphenation table is the standard reference
• Capitalization of job titles, department names, product names, and organizational names
• Numbers: choose and apply a threshold consistently (Chicago: spell out one through one hundred; AP: spell out one through nine; APA: spell out one through nine in text but use numerals for measurements, statistics, and quantities preceding units)
• Abbreviation introduction: every abbreviation should be spelled out on first use in the main text, then the abbreviation used thereafter (not in headings, then again in the body)
• Oxford/serial comma: apply consistently in every list throughout the document

Priority 5 -- Flow (Suggested):

• Transitions between sentences: when the logical connection between two sentences is unclear, add a transition word or phrase ("however," "therefore," "in contrast," "as a result," "more importantly") or restructure to make the connection explicit
• Sentence length variation: a paragraph of eight consecutive sentences all running 8-12 words becomes monotonous; vary the rhythm
• Paragraph-ending sentences: a paragraph that ends weakly (trailing off with a minor detail) when the major claim was in the middle loses impact -- consider reordering within the paragraph (though full paragraph restructuring is structural editing)
• Repetitive sentence openings: four consecutive sentences beginning with "The" or "This" become numbing; vary the openings

Step 4: Apply Style Guide Rules Systematically

Style guides are not optional suggestions -- they are binding rules when specified. Apply these common rules systematically:

AP Stylebook key rules frequently violated:

• No Oxford serial comma
• Numbers one through nine spelled out; 10 and above as numerals
• Dates formatted as "Jan. 5, 2024" (abbreviated months except March, April, May, June, July)
• Percent spelled out as "%" after a numeral in most contexts (change: "10 percent" → "10%" in most AP contexts post-2019 update)
• Job titles capitalized only when directly preceding a name ("President Jane Smith" but "Jane Smith, the president")
• No hyphen in "email," "website," "online"

Chicago Manual of Style (17th ed.) key rules frequently violated:

• Oxford serial comma required
• Numbers one through one hundred spelled out; also spell out round numbers like "three hundred" and "four thousand"
• Em dashes with no spaces around them (not " -- " but "--" with no spaces -- though this skill uses double dash per convention)
• Titles of books, journals, films in italics; article and chapter titles in quotation marks
• Footnotes or endnotes for citations (Notes-Bibliography system) or author-date parenthetical citations (Author-Date system) -- these are different and must not be mixed
• Headline-style capitalization for headings: capitalize the first and last words plus all major words

APA (7th ed.) key rules frequently violated:

• Numbers one through nine spelled out; numbers 10 and above as numerals; but always use numerals for measurements, statistics, and quantities paired with units
• Bias-free language: use person-first language ("people with disabilities" not "disabled people") unless the community prefers identity-first language ("Autistic people")
• Oxford serial comma required
• Running head no longer required for student papers; still required for manuscripts submitted for publication
• Singular "they" explicitly endorsed
• DOI formatted as a hyperlink: https://doi.org/xxxxx

AMA (11th ed.) key rules frequently violated:

• Use numerals for all numbers except at the start of a sentence
• Abbreviate units of measure when used with numerals (5 mg, 10 mL, 3 h)
• Specific requirements for statistical reporting (report exact P values to two or three significant figures; do not report P = .000)
• Genus and species in italics; genus capitalized, species lowercase

Step 5: Flag Rather Than Fix When Uncertain

A copy editor's most underrated skill is knowing when NOT to change something. Flag and preserve in these cases:

• Sentences that seem wrong but might reflect expert knowledge you lack -- flag for author verification, do not silently correct
• Intentional stylistic choices that break rules for effect (a fragment used for emphasis, a dash for dramatic pause, a one-sentence paragraph for impact)
• Technical terminology that appears redundant or unusual but may be a term of art in the field
• Statistical statements, numerical claims, and technical specifications -- copy editors do not verify these; flag them as "Author: please verify this figure/claim"
• Anything where your edit would meaningfully change the nuance of the claim, not just the expression

Flag items using a standard notation: [FLAG: reason for flagging -- no change made]

Step 6: Build and Verify the Consistency Checklist

After completing the editing pass, run a consistency check against the terminology and formatting decisions made during the edit. Verify:

• Every instance of each key term is spelled and capitalized identically
• Every abbreviation was introduced on first use and used consistently thereafter
• Numbers follow the chosen rule throughout (no numerals in one paragraph and spelled-out words in the next, violating the same rule)
• All hyphenated compounds are hyphenated identically in every instance
• Lists are formatted in parallel grammatical structure (all noun phrases, or all gerund phrases, or all imperative clauses -- not a mixture)
• Heading capitalization follows the same rule in every heading

Step 7: Produce the Marked-Up Output

Every edit must appear in the markup section. Do not silently change anything in the "Edited Document" that does not appear in the "Edits" section. The markup must show:

• Original text (in strikethrough or quoted as "Original:")
• Revised text (bolded or labeled "Revised:")
• Edit category: Correctness | Clarity | Concision | Consistency | Flow | Style guide
• Edit necessity: Essential (fixing an error or serious clarity failure) | Suggested (improving style, flow, or concision)
• Rationale: One sentence explaining the specific rule or principle applied -- not "awkward" but "the participial phrase 'having been told' dangles because its implied subject does not match the sentence subject"

Step 8: Produce the Final Summary and Edited Document

After all marked edits:

• Present the Edit Summary table (counts by category)
• List all Content Flags (claims needing author verification, logical gaps, possible structural issues -- these are observations, not changes)
• Present the full Edited Document with all edits incorporated
• Note any sections where the original was preserved intentionally with a brief explanation

---

Output Format

## Copy Edit Report

**Style guide:** [AP / Chicago / APA / AMA / MLA / IEEE / House style: [name] / None specified -- defaulting to [guide]]
**Edit level:** [Light / Medium / Heavy] -- [one-sentence description of what this means for this document]
**Document type:** [Academic / Journalistic / Business / Technical / Creative nonfiction / Marketing / Web/digital]
**Target audience:** [Description]
**Terminology standardized to:** [List key terms and their chosen forms, e.g., "healthcare (one word throughout)," "email (no hyphen)," "the United States (spelled out, not U.S., in body text)"]

---

### Edits by Paragraph

**Paragraph [N] - [optional: first few words of paragraph for orientation]:**

| # | Original | Revised | Category | Necessity | Rationale |
|---|----------|---------|----------|-----------|-----------|
| 1 | ~~[original text]~~ | **[revised text]** | Correctness | Essential | [Specific rule or principle] |
| 2 | ~~[original text]~~ | **[revised text]** | Concision | Suggested | [Specific principle] |
| 3 | ~~[original text]~~ | **[revised text]** | Style guide | Essential | [Specific style guide rule and section if known] |

**[FLAG: Paragraph N, sentence X -- [claim or term] -- Author: please verify. No change made.]**

[Repeat for all paragraphs with changes. Paragraphs with no changes are noted: "Paragraph [N]: No changes."]

---

### Consistency Checklist

| Element | Chosen Form | Instances Corrected |
|---------|-------------|---------------------|
| [Term, number, hyphenation, etc.] | [Standardized form] | [Count] |

---

### Edit Summary

| Category | Essential | Suggested | Total |
|----------|-----------|-----------|-------|
| Correctness | [n] | - | [n] |
| Clarity | [n] | [n] | [n] |
| Concision | [n] | [n] | [n] |
| Consistency | [n] | [n] | [n] |
| Flow | [n] | [n] | [n] |
| Style guide | [n] | [n] | [n] |
| **Total** | **[n]** | **[n]** | **[n]** |

---

### Content Flags (No Edits Made -- Author Attention Required)

1. [Paragraph N, sentence X] -- [Claim or issue] -- [Recommended action: verify, clarify, or consider restructuring]
2. [Continue for all flags]

*If no flags: "No content flags."*

---

### Edited Document

[Full document with all edits incorporated. No markup -- clean prose only. Ready to use.]

---

Rules

1. Never substitute your voice for the author's. If the author writes in short, declarative sentences, do not rewrite them into complex subordinate clauses. If the author favors periodic sentences, do not chop them into simple sentences. Copy editing improves the author's text -- it does not replace it with the editor's preferences.

2. Every edit must be traceable. Every change in the Edited Document must appear in the Edits section with a rationale. If a change is not important enough to justify, it is not important enough to make.

3. Distinguish essential from suggested at every edit. An essential edit corrects an error (grammatical, spelling, punctuation, usage, style-guide violation). A suggested edit improves style, flow, or concision where the original is technically correct. Never mark a suggested edit as essential, and never bury an essential edit among suggested ones without flagging its higher priority.

4. Do not restructure paragraphs. You may improve the opening or closing sentence of a paragraph by condensing it, but you may not move sentences between paragraphs, merge paragraphs, or split them. That is structural editing. If a structural problem exists, note it in Content Flags.

5. Apply style guide rules consistently or not at all. Applying the Oxford comma in paragraph 2 but missing it in paragraph 8 is worse than not applying it anywhere -- it creates the appearance of inconsistency. Either apply every instance or flag every instance. Do not cherry-pick.

6. Flag rather than fix technical and domain-specific content. If a sentence contains a technical claim, a statistic, a legal term, a medical dosage, or a scientific term you cannot verify, flag it and leave it unchanged. A wrong fact expressed in perfect prose is worse than an awkward fact expressed correctly.

7. Never introduce new errors. This is the most embarrassing failure in copy editing. When you restructure a sentence for concision, re-read it for subject-verb agreement, pronoun reference, and punctuation. When you fix a pronoun, check that all subsequent pronouns in the passage still agree. A copy editor who introduces errors while fixing others has failed the fundamental task.

8. Preserve intentional rule-breaking. A one-word sentence used for emphasis. A sentence-opening "And" or "But" used for rhetorical effect. A comma splice between closely related clauses. An unconventional paragraph break. These may be intentional. Flag them with "[FLAG: possible intentional rule-break -- no change made; confirm if intentional]" rather than automatically correcting them.

9. Concision cuts must preserve full meaning. When cutting for concision, the revised sentence must carry every piece of information and nuance the original contained. Cutting "the long-term" from "the long-term consequences" to produce "the consequences" changes the meaning. Cutting "in order to" from "in order to reduce costs" to produce "to reduce costs" does not. Know the difference.

---

Edge Cases

Creative writing submitted for copy editing: Creative writing requires a different editorial posture. The author's "errors" may be intentional stylistic choices -- unconventional punctuation (Cormac McCarthy uses no quotation marks), deliberate fragments (Joan Didion's essay openings), intentional comma splices (used for breath and rhythm), non-standard capitalization. Before editing, ask whether the piece has established stylistic conventions. Edit for internal consistency within those conventions, not toward standard prose. For example, if the author never uses quotation marks for dialogue, do not add them -- flag on first instance and confirm. If the author uses em dashes for every pause, do not normalize to commas. Flag and confirm only genuine ambiguities and errors that break the piece's own internal logic.

Heavily technical documents (engineering, medicine, law-adjacent): Technical documents contain terminology that looks wrong to a general copy editor but is precise and correct in the domain. "The patient was ambulated" (medical passive), "the contract shall be construed" (legal shall), "memory is allocated" (computing passive) -- these are not errors. When a technical term appears unusual, research it briefly or flag it rather than changing it. Never change unit abbreviations, chemical formulas, gene names, drug names, or statistical notation unless you are certain of the convention in that specific technical domain. AMA, IEEE, and APA each have specific rules for these that differ from each other.

Document with pre-existing tracked changes: When the user submits text that already contains tracked changes (often indicated with strikethrough and insertion formatting in the paste), your first task is to accept all existing changes mentally and edit the post-acceptance text. Note in your report: "Existing tracked changes accepted before this edit. If any accepted change introduced an error, it is corrected in this edit and noted." Do not edit the deleted (struck-through) text -- edit only what remains after acceptance.

Multiple authors or sections with distinct voices: Long reports, collaborative papers, and organizational documents frequently reflect multiple authors with detectably different voices -- one section uses passive voice and long sentences, another uses active voice and short sentences. Do not homogenize the document into a single voice unless the user specifically requests that. Instead, edit each section toward its own internal consistency and correctness. Note in the report: "This document appears to have multiple authors. Each section has been edited for internal consistency while preserving each section's distinct style."

User requests editing into a non-native-English register: When the document was written by a non-native English speaker, the patterns of error are often systematic -- consistent misuse of articles (a/an/the), consistent verb tense confusion, consistent preposition errors. Treat these systematically rather than individually: identify the pattern, correct all instances, and note the pattern in your summary ("Articles were missing before countable nouns in many instances -- corrected throughout"). Do not over-edit toward a stilted formal register; preserve the author's ideas and preferred vocabulary while correcting grammar.

User wants only one section edited, not the full document: When editing a section in isolation, note any consistency concerns that may exist with the larger document you cannot see: "Terminology used in this section ('the intervention') may need to be checked against usage in other sections. The hyphenation of 'evidence-based' has been standardized within this section -- verify it matches the rest of the document." Do not speculate about what the rest of the document contains, but flag that cross-document consistency cannot be verified.

Document has formatting errors embedded in the text: Copy editing addresses words, not visual formatting. However, note obvious formatting inconsistencies that affect readability: inconsistent list formatting (some items capitalized, some not; some with periods, some without), inconsistent heading levels, tables with missing column headers. Flag these in Content Flags with the note that they are formatting issues beyond copy editing scope but worth the author's attention.

User asks to apply a specific style guide but the document violates it in ways that would require major content changes: Some style guide compliance issues are copy editing tasks (comma placement, capitalization, number formatting). Others are content issues (APA requires abstracts structured in a specific way; Chicago Notes-Bibliography requires footnotes that are currently missing; AMA requires specific sections in clinical trial reports). Flag the content-level compliance gaps in Content Flags rather than attempting to add missing sections. Note: "The following style guide requirements cannot be addressed through copy editing and require the author's attention: [list]."

---

Example

Input: "Copy edit the following for submission to a peer-reviewed psychology journal (APA 7th edition). Medium edit level.

'Researchers who study self-regulation has consistently found that individual's who struggle with impulse control tend to exhibit worse academic outcomes then their peers. This is due to the fact that the ability to delay gratification -- sometimes called executive function -- is a strong predicter of long-term success. Recent work by Jones et al (2021) showed that a 12-week mindfulness-based intervention effected participants' ability to regulate their emotions, however the effect sizes were modest (d = .23). Going forward, future research should investigate whether these effects are replicable across more different kinds of populations.'"

---

Output:

Copy Edit Report

Style guide: APA Publication Manual, 7th Edition Edit level: Medium -- correctness errors corrected throughout; wordy constructions tightened; style guide requirements applied systematically Document type: Academic -- peer-reviewed psychology Target audience: Scholars and researchers in psychology and behavioral science Terminology standardized to: "self-regulation" (hyphenated, per APA convention for established compound); "impulse control" (two words, no hyphen as noun phrase); "executive function" (lowercase, generic term)

---

Edits by Paragraph

Paragraph 1 (full paragraph):

#	Original	Revised	Category	Necessity	Rationale
1	Researchers who study self-regulation has consistently found	Researchers who study self-regulation have consistently found	Correctness	Essential	Subject-verb agreement error. The subject is the plural "Researchers," not "self-regulation." The verb must be "have," not "has."
2	individual's who struggle	individuals who struggle	Correctness	Essential	Apostrophe error. "Individuals" is a plural noun here, not a possessive. No apostrophe.
3	worse academic outcomes then their peers	worse academic outcomes than their peers	Correctness	Essential	Confused homophones. "Then" indicates time sequence; "than" is required for comparisons.
4	This is due to the fact that the ability to delay gratification	The ability to delay gratification	Concision	Suggested	"This is due to the fact that" is a wordy throat-clearing opener that delays the subject by nine words. Beginning directly with the subject is cleaner and more direct -- appropriate for academic prose.
5	-- sometimes called executive function --	-- sometimes called executive function --	No change	--	Em dash parenthetical preserved. Note: APA does not specify em dash spacing, but consistent no-space em dashes (or spaced en dashes) should be used throughout the document. Confirm house style for the target journal. [FLAG: Journal-specific formatting for dashes -- verify target journal's author guidelines.]
6	a strong predicter	a strong predictor	Correctness	Essential	Spelling error. The correct form is "predictor" (from the Latin root "praedictor"). "Predicter" is a nonstandard form not accepted in formal academic writing.
7	Jones et al (2021)	Jones et al. (2021)	Style guide	Essential	APA 7th ed. requires a period after "al" in "et al." because "al." is an abbreviation of "alii." The period is not optional.

[FLAG: The claim that executive function is "sometimes called" impulse control delay -- these constructs are related but technically distinct in the self-regulation literature. Author: verify that equating "delay of gratification" with "executive function" is accurate for your argument. No change made.]

---

Consistency Checklist

Element	Chosen Form	Instances Corrected
Numbers	Numerals for 12 (measurement, per APA)	1 -- "12-week" correctly uses numeral; retained
Effect size notation	Leading zero (APA 7th ed.)	1 -- d = .23 → d = 0.23
"et al."	With period after "al."	1

---

Edit Summary

Category	Essential	Suggested	Total
Correctness	6	-	6
Clarity	-	1	1
Concision	-	2	2
Consistency	-	-	0
Flow	-	-	0
Style guide	2	-	2
Total	8	3	11

---

Content Flags (No Edits Made -- Author Attention Required)

1. [Paragraph 1, sentence 2] -- "Executive function" and "delay of gratification" are related but distinct constructs in the self-regulation literature (Mischel et al.; Miyake et al.). The parenthetical "sometimes called executive function" may conflate them. Author: verify the intended theoretical framing and consider citing a source that supports this equivalence.

2. [Paragraph 1, sentence 3] -- The Jones et al. (2021) citation appears in running text but has no corresponding entry confirmed in a reference list. Author: verify the citation is complete (doi or journal information) for the reference list. APA 7th ed. requires a DOI as a hyperlink (https://doi.org/xxxxx) when available.

3. [Em dash formatting] -- Verify target journal's author guidelines for em dash formatting (spaced vs. unspaced). Some APA journals require spaced en dashes; others accept unspaced em dashes. This cannot be resolved from the style guide alone.

4. [Effect size] -- The effect size d = 0.23 is correctly characterized as "modest" by Cohen's (1988) benchmarks (small: d = 0.2, medium: d = 0.5, large: d = 0.8). However, authors increasingly use field-specific benchmarks rather than Cohen's generic ones. Author: confirm whether "modest" is the appropriate characterization given the specific subfield's conventions.

---

Edited Document

Researchers who study self-regulation have consistently found that individuals who struggle with impulse control tend to exhibit worse academic outcomes than their peers. The ability to delay gratification -- sometimes called executive function -- is a strong predictor of long-term success. Recent work by Jones et al. (2021) showed that a 12-week mindfulness-based intervention affected participants' ability to regulate their emotions; however, the effect sizes were modest (d = 0.23). Future research should investigate whether these effects are replicable across more diverse populations.