Solve industrial-control and OT protocol lab tasks by treating traffic and process state as evidence first, then selecting the smallest safe action that proves the objective.
When this skill applies
PCAPs, logs, register dumps, historian exports, or remote services involving PLC, HMI, RTU, engineering workstation, SCADA, or process-control wording.
Protocol cues: Modbus/TCP, DNP3, BACnet, S7comm, EtherNet/IP/CIP, OPC UA, MQTT, Profinet, CAN, CANopen, serial fieldbus, coils, holding registers, function codes, setpoints, or actuator state.
Tasks requiring traffic baselining, protocol-state reconstruction, register decoding, anomaly identification, or cautious interaction with an isolated lab service.
Operating model
Preserve and identify the artifact: hash files, list ports, extract timestamps, and record protocol guesses with evidence.
Separate roles before payloads: identify HMI, PLC, RTU, historian, engineering workstation, gateway, broker, and attacker-like clients.
Baseline normal behavior: polling interval, read/write ratio, function codes, register ranges, topics, tags, and repeated process cycles.
Decode semantics: map coils/registers/tags to values, infer endian/scaling, correlate writes with observed physical or process changes.
Prefer read-only validation. Only write or send commands when the target is clearly an isolated lab and the success oracle requires it.
Prove the result with a minimal, replayable signal: decoded secret, anomalous write, state transition, topic payload, register value, or process timeline.
Technique integration
Load these as decision engines when their domain appears:
network-technique for PCAP, protocol, and service exposure analysis.
forensic-technique for evidence handling, timelines, and artifact preservation.
wireless-technique for RF, serial-over-radio, or fieldbus captures crossing into wireless analysis.
reversing-technique for PLC program blocks, firmware, protocol clients, or custom encoders.
python-patterns for parsers, register decoders, and safe replay harnesses.
Tool routing
Use tool families based on the evidence, not habit:
wireshark, tcpdump, tshark, and zeek for protocol carving, conversations, timing, display filters (modbus.func_code, s7comm, dnp3, bacapp, cip, opcua, mqtt), and CSV/JSON field export.
pymodbus, modbus-cli, mbtget, QModMaster, and ModbusPal for Modbus read/write, function-code abuse (FC 1–6, 15, 16, 8, 43), coil/register sweeps, and lab simulation.
python-snap7, snap7-server, plcscan, and s7scan for Siemens S7 enumeration (rack/slot, SZL, DB reads) and lab targets.
opcua-asyncio, FreeOpcUa, and OPCUaScanner for OPC UA endpoint enumeration, anonymous-policy detection, node browse, and read/write.
mosquitto_pub/mosquitto_sub, mqtt-pwn, mosquitto-clients, MQTT Explorer/MQTTX, Scapy MQTT layer, MQTTSA, and the Wireshark mqtt + sparkplug dissectors for topic enumeration (#, $SYS/#), retained-message inspection, Sparkplug B (Eclipse Tahu / pysparkplug) decoding, broker fingerprinting (Mosquitto/EMQX/HiveMQ/VerneMQ/NanoMQ) and auth probing. Always pair with the adjacent dashboard port (EMQX 18083, HiveMQ 8080, Node-RED 1880, OpenPLC 8080, Home Assistant 8123) — it is usually the real entry point.
can-utils (candump, cansniffer, cansend, cangen) for CAN bus capture, periodic-frame analysis, and replay against virtual vcan interfaces.
CyberChef, jq, pandas, and Python scripts for endian, scaling, timestamp, register-table transformations, and CSV-from-pcap decoding pipelines.
OT NSE scripts (, , , , , ) only against authorized isolated labs; passive PCAP analysis is preferred when artifacts are enough.
Safety and scope gates
Treat real-world ICS/OT writes as unsafe by default. In lab tasks, document why the environment is isolated before any write.
Never reset, stop, upload firmware, or mass-write registers unless the prompt explicitly defines an isolated target and the objective requires that exact action.
Keep a pivot ledger: protocol hypothesis, field evidence, decoded meaning, validation signal, and next safest step.
If traffic looks malformed, first test endian, scaling, segmentation, custom function codes, or encapsulation before assuming exploitation.
Report uncertainty: process semantics are inferred unless confirmed by labels, HMI screens, historian tags, or repeated cause-effect evidence.
Quick pivots
Modbus: map unit IDs, function codes (FC 1/2 read coils/discrete, FC 3/4 read holding/input, FC 5/6 single write, FC 15/16 multi write, FC 8 diagnostics, FC 43 device ID), coil/register ranges, write events, byte order, and byte-vs-word counts. Wireshark filter: modbus.func_code == 16 for write-multiple-registers events. Check BOTH register/reference number AND register value fields — flag-style data is often hidden in the address, transaction ID, or unit ID instead of the value.
DNP3: inspect objects, variations, unsolicited responses, control relay outputs (group 12), and outstation/master roles. Filter: dnp3.
BACnet: enumerate devices, objects, properties, write-property events, and broadcast discovery (Who-Is/I-Am). Filter: bacapp plus service choice.
S7comm: identify rack/slot, SZL reads, data block accesses, and program/block transfer indicators. Filter: s7comm plus s7comm.param.func. Pair with plcscan/s7scan for lab enumeration and python-snap7 for DB reads.
EtherNet/IP/CIP: decode sessions, class/instance/attribute paths, tag names, and explicit messaging. Filter: enip and cip.
OPC UA: walk endpoint discovery, security policies (note None policy = anonymous), node IDs, and Browse/Read/Write services. Filter: opcua.
MQTT: reconstruct topics/nodes, retained messages, client IDs, will payloads, and process-state deltas. Filter: mqtt. Try wildcard subscriptions # and $SYS/# when broker access is authorized; grab $SYS/broker/version + clients/total + retained messages/count first.
Sparkplug B / MQTT-bridge pivot: topic prefix spBv1.0/<group>/<NBIRTH|NDATA|NCMD|DBIRTH|DDATA|DCMD>/<edge>[/<device>] with Protobuf payload signals an Ignition / Cirrus Link / EMQX Neuron / Node-RED bridge. Capture an NBIRTH/DBIRTH first to resolve alias→tag, then treat DCMD writes as actuator writes (Modbus FC 5/6 equivalent). Bridges (Cirrus Link, EMQX Neuron, Node-RED, OpenPLC MQTT, Advantech/Moxa/HMS gateways) round-trip MQTT writes into Modbus/S7/OPC-UA — confirm with state-topic lag (~1 s) before assuming raw broker access reaches the PLC.
Mosquitto pivot: pull mosquitto.conf and passwd_file if a host is in scope (auth_plugin, bridge_*, , ); hashes crack with (PBKDF2-SHA512 mode for 2.x, legacy SHA512+salt for 1.x). Pin findings to and check vendor advisories (Mosquitto CVE-2017-7650 ACL pattern bypass, CVE-2024-3935 TLS DoS; EMQX/HiveMQ/VerneMQ banners similarly).
references/plc-interaction-recipes.md — read-only-first interaction recipes for Modbus, S7, OPC UA, MQTT, and CAN against authorized lab targets, plus engineering-software pivot patterns.
references/attack-patterns.md — Purdue-model mapping, engineering-workstation pivots, project-file formats, race-condition / FDI writes, L2 MITM in flat OT segments, HMI/historian pivots, and operational-impact reasoning.
references/signal-decoding-and-testing.md — PLC scan cycle and memory areas, Modbus/CIP/S7/DNP3/BACnet decoding cues, integer/float/BCD/string/time encodings, byte-and-word order resolution, CAN signal decoding, the baseline → write → verify → restore test cycle, and a final validation checklist.
references/tia-portal-and-plc-fundamentals.md — Siemens S7-1500 / TIA Portal toolchain (project archives, HSP versioning, PLCSim Advanced offline simulation), OB/FB/FC/DB block taxonomy, S7-1500 memory areas (I/Q/M/DB/L), HMI tag binding, PROFINET DCP cell layout, and a step-by-step workflow for analyzing a seized project archive.
references/incidents.md — OT incident pattern cards, vendor/CVE landing pads, and attack-path templates useful for recognizing or modeling realistic ICS-style tasks.
references/mqtt-iot-ics-bridges.md — MQTT broker triage ($SYS fingerprinting, anonymous/retained/LWT/ACL probing), Sparkplug B topic + payload model (Eclipse Tahu), Mosquitto/EMQX/HiveMQ/VerneMQ/NanoMQ specifics with CVE references, MQTT-to-PLC bridge stacks (Cirrus Link Ignition modules, EMQX Neuron, Node-RED, OpenPLC, Advantech/Moxa/HMS gateways), tool chain (mqtt-pwn, mosquitto-clients, MQTT Explorer/MQTTX, MQTTSA, Scapy, Cotopaxi), recurring broker-challenge and home-automation attack patterns, and vendor/research case material (Akamai, Trend Micro, HiveMQ, Claroty Team82, CISA ICS advisories).
nmap
modbus-discover
s7-info
enip-info
bacnet-info
mqtt-subscribe
opcua-info
binwalk, ghidra, radare2, and strings when the task includes PLC firmware, engineering-project exports, or custom protocol binaries.
saleae-logic-2 when a capture includes serial, CAN, or fieldbus waveforms rather than decoded network traffic.
Known lab engineering-software (OpenPLC runtime/editor, Codesys, ScadaBR, Node-RED, ConPot honeypot, MiniCPS, ICSsim) often expose web panels and scripting hooks that pair with protocol access; treat them as separate pivot targets when ports such as 1880, 8080, 8443, 11502, or vendor-specific HTTP appear.
acl_file
allow_anonymous
hashcat
$SYS/broker/version
CAN/CANopen: infer arbitration IDs, periodic frames, PDO/SDO patterns, endian, counters, and checksum bytes; use candump/cansniffer for live data.
Historian/log exports: normalize timestamps, recover tag/value/unit columns, identify sparse writes, and correlate alarm rows with process deltas.
Project exports/firmware: extract symbols, comments, ladder/ST strings, tag databases, constants, network configuration, and custom encoders before dynamic interaction.
Serial/fieldbus captures: identify baud/framing, address fields, checksums, counters, and periodic control loops before replaying frames.
Engineering-software pivot: when an OpenPLC/Codesys/ScadaBR/Node-RED web panel sits next to the PLC port, check default credentials, scripting hooks (OpenPLC PSM module, Node-RED function nodes), and known CVEs for that specific runtime before scripting writes against the protocol.
Process-state pivot: pressure/temperature/level registers near safety thresholds, coils tied to pumps/valves/cooling, and setpoint registers driving alarms are common objectives; correlate writes to expected physical effect and verify by read-back or HMI state, not by assumption.
Purdue-model pivot: map each host to L0 (sensors/actuators), L1 (PLC/RTU), L2 (HMI/SCADA), L3 (historian, engineering workstation, MES) before choosing a target; the shortest path to objective is often an L2/L3 host (HMI web, RDP, historian DB, project files) rather than direct L1 protocol abuse.
Engineering-workstation pivot: project files on the engineering workstation (.acd/.l5x RSLogix/Studio 5000, .ap14/.zap14 TIA Portal, .pro/.projectarchive Codesys, .s7p/.ap13 Step7) carry ladder/ST source, tag names, network configuration, and sometimes credentials — grab them before native protocol attacks when the workstation is in scope.
Race-condition / False Data Injection (FDI) pivot: when a master polls a PLC on a fixed cycle (e.g. every 1–3 s), writes inside the cycle window can flip coils/registers between the PLC update and the next master read; build the write loop tighter than the poll interval and verify the master observes the desynced state.
L2/MITM pivot in flat OT networks: ARP poisoning between HMI and PLC (or between two PLCs on a Device-Level Ring) lets you rewrite Modbus/EtherNet/IP/S7 in flight with ettercap/bettercap + NetfilterQueue + Scapy filters — useful when direct write is logged but rewrite-in-transit is not.
HMI-side pivot: HMI panels often expose VNC (5900) without auth, vendor web UIs with default credentials, or shared SMB folders containing PLC project archives, recipe files, and screenshots that label tag meanings.
Historian pivot: PI Server, FactoryTalk Historian, WinCC, and Wonderware historians (MSSQL/proprietary on 1433, 5450, 5460) carry long timeseries of every tag and often default/weak SQL credentials — they are an alternative to live PLC read for proving a process anomaly.
Scan-cycle awareness: writes to the output image (%Q/coils) are overwritten next PLC scan; setpoint writes (%M/holding registers consumed by ladder) persist. Forces override both regardless of ladder. Mode transitions (STOP/RUN/PROG/FAULT) are high-signal events — search PCAPs for them before chasing register writes.
Signal decoding pivot: raw register ≠ engineering value. Guess byte/word order (ABCD/CDAB/BADC/DCBA) by checking which order yields a plausible temperature/pressure/level, then solve EU = raw*scale + offset from two known HMI/historian points. Status registers pack 16 alarm bits — map each bit before claiming meaning.
Test-cycle discipline: every write goes through baseline (3+ snapshots, diff to identify live vs static registers) → minimal write (one bit/register, smallest FC) → read-back → side-channel verification (HMI/historian/oracle, not just read-back) → hold for ≥ N polling cycles → restore. Read-back alone is insufficient evidence.
IT→OT chain pivot: realistic OT compromise starts in IT (Responder/SMB-relay, AS-REP/Kerberoast, ADCS ESC1) → DA → OT-DMZ jump (backup script creds, KeePass dump CVE-2023-32784, reused local-admin) → engineering workstation (vendor IDE + project files + saved PLC creds) → PLC setpoint/logic. PLC default passwords often arrive via photos and panel stickers on file shares, not live enumeration. Budget ~60 % IT/AD, ~25 % DMZ pivot, ~15 % PLC interaction; never touch SIS (Triconex/HIMA/GuardLogix).
Priority frame: OT inverts CIA into Safety > Availability > Integrity > Confidentiality; reject findings/recommendations that raise confidentiality at the cost of safety or availability, and frame impact in operator-visible terms (alarm row, HMI banner, historian sample) rather than CVE wording.
TIA Portal project pivot: when given a .zap1x/.ap1x/.s7p archive, treat it like source code. Match TIA Portal major version + HSP to the CPU firmware, dump PLC + HMI tag tables to CSV, reverse OB1 networks in order, then load into PLCSim Advanced to drive inputs and watch DB/M evolution offline. The DB area is the cleanest write surface (setpoint changes leave no Q-image footprint); HMI buttons are usually thin proxies onto M bits. Basic/Comfort panels archive analog tags to internal SD and to the back-USB stick — pull both when you have physical access.
Real-world archetype pivot: map the artifact to a known OT chain before improvising. Use references/incidents.md for vendor/CVE landing pads and pattern cards such as FrostyGoop-style setpoint flips, BAUXITE/Unitronics defaults, Volt/Sylvanite IT→OT pivots, MQTT-to-gauge IOCONTROL footprints, and Static Tundra-style destructive chains.
