| name | environmental-indemnity-negotiation |
| description | Comprehensive negotiation guide for environmental indemnity agreements in commercial real estate (CRE) finance transactions. Covers the most commonly negotiated provisions with lender/borrower positions and market benchmarks derived from well-negotiated institutional portfolio transactions. Use this skill when reviewing, drafting, or negotiating environmental indemnity agreements for any CRE loan — including construction loans, permanent financing, portfolio loans, and recapitalizations.
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Environmental Indemnity Agreement — CRE Finance Negotiation Skill
Overview
The environmental indemnity agreement is a standard component of CRE loan document packages. It creates personal, recourse liability for the borrower (and typically a creditworthy guarantor/indemnitor) for environmental conditions affecting the mortgaged property. Because environmental liability is treated as an exception to typical non-recourse carve-out structures, it is one of the most consequential documents in a loan closing from the indemnitor's perspective.
This skill covers 18 commonly negotiated provisions organized by section. For each provision, the skill identifies the lender's desired position, the borrower's desired position, and the market benchmark from well-negotiated institutional transactions.
1. Environmental Representations and Warranties
Lender's Desired Position
Absolute, unqualified representations that: (a) no Hazardous Substances exist on the property; (b) no Releases have occurred; (c) no migration threats exist; (d) full compliance with all Environmental Laws; and (e) no notices of violation have been received. No knowledge qualifiers, no materiality qualifiers, no carve-outs.
Borrower's Desired Position
All representations should be: (a) qualified by Borrower's actual knowledge (not constructive or imputed knowledge); (b) subject to materiality thresholds; (c) carved out for conditions disclosed in environmental reports delivered to Lender; (d) carved out for de minimis amounts of Hazardous Substances necessary for property operations and compliant with Environmental Law; and (e) limited to written notices from Governmental Authorities or other Persons regarding material non-compliance.
Market Benchmark
Well-negotiated agreements include all five of the Borrower's requested qualifiers:
- Knowledge qualifier: "to Borrower's knowledge" on all factual representations (presence, Releases, migration, compliance). This is standard for institutional borrowers and protects against unknown pre-existing conditions.
- Environmental Report carve-out: Conditions disclosed in Phase I (and Phase II, if obtained) environmental reports delivered at origination are carved out. The defined term "Environmental Report" should capture all reports delivered.
- De minimis / operational carve-out: Presence of Hazardous Substances that are (i) in material compliance with Environmental Laws and required permits, (ii) de minimis amounts necessary to operate the property, and (iii) otherwise permitted under Environmental Law is excluded.
- Materiality qualifiers: Non-compliance representations are qualified by "material" non-compliance. Notices are limited to those relating to "material" non-compliance or violations "in any material respect."
- Written notice limitation: The notice representation is limited to written notices and written communications, not oral or informal communications.
2. Environmental Covenants — Compliance Standard
Lender's Desired Position
Absolute compliance with all Environmental Laws at all times. Borrower directly responsible for all acts of tenants and third-party users. No knowledge or intent qualifiers on prohibitions.
Borrower's Desired Position
Compliance obligations qualified by "material" compliance, "commercially reasonable efforts" for actions of third parties (tenants and other users), and "knowing" or "intentional" qualifiers on prohibitions against Releases or permitting Hazardous Substances.
Market Benchmark
Well-negotiated agreements include:
- Material compliance: "compliance in all material respects with all Environmental Laws" — not absolute compliance.
- Commercially reasonable efforts for third parties: Borrower covenants to use "commercially reasonable efforts" to ensure tenants and other property users comply, rather than being strictly liable for third-party actions.
- Knowledge/intent qualifiers on prohibitions: No Loan Party shall "knowingly or intentionally" Release Hazardous Substances or permit Hazardous Substances on the property. This protects against strict liability for unknown conditions.
- De minimis operational carve-out: Mirrors the representation carve-out — Hazardous Substances in material compliance with law, de minimis amounts necessary for operations, and fully disclosed to Lender are permitted.
- Remediation standard: Borrower must "reasonably effectuate Remediation" of conditions in violation of Environmental Law — the "reasonably" qualifier is important.
- Protection of human health covenant: Limited to "commercially reasonable action necessary for protection of human health or the environment from a known and imminent harmful environmental condition" — both knowledge and imminence qualifiers.
3. Lender's Right to Environmental Assessments
Lender's Desired Position
Unlimited right to order environmental assessments at Borrower's expense at any time, in Lender's sole and absolute discretion, with Lender selecting consultants and controlling scope.
Borrower's Desired Position
Lender's right to require assessments should be: (a) triggered only by reasonable belief of an environmental hazard that could give rise to material liability or material non-compliance; (b) conducted by consultants reasonably satisfactory to Lender; (c) at Borrower's expense only for the initial assessment; (d) subject to reasonable notice to Borrower; and (e) Borrower should have the first right to conduct and deliver the assessment before Lender can enter the property independently.
Market Benchmark
Well-negotiated agreements include a two-step framework:
- Step 1 — Borrower's right to cure: Triggered when Lender has "reason to believe" an environmental hazard exists that "may endanger tenants/occupants" or "may materially and adversely affect the value" of the property. Upon reasonable notice, Borrower must promptly engage an engineer or consultant reasonably satisfactory to Lender (not selected by Lender) to conduct assessment of scope determined in Lender's reasonable discretion. Results must be delivered within a "reasonable period."
- Step 2 — Lender's self-help: Only if Borrower fails to deliver results within a reasonable period, and upon reasonable notice to Borrower, Lender may enter the property to conduct its own assessment in Lender's sole and absolute discretion as to scope (higher discretion standard kicks in only after Borrower defaults on its obligation).
This two-step structure is a significant borrower protection that prevents Lender from unilaterally entering the property and running up costs without first giving Borrower the opportunity to control the process.
4. Indemnification — Scope and Triggers
Lender's Desired Position
Broad indemnification covering any presence of Hazardous Substances or any non-compliance with Environmental Laws, regardless of causation, materiality, or whether Remediation is actually required. No carve-outs for Indemnified Party conduct.
Borrower's Desired Position
Indemnification limited to: (a) conditions that actually violate Environmental Law or require material Remediation; (b) losses "actually imposed upon or incurred by" Indemnified Parties (not speculative); (c) losses "directly or indirectly arising out of" enumerated triggers (causal connection required); (d) carve-out for Indemnified Party's gross negligence, willful misconduct, or illegal acts; and (e) "threatened" conditions limited to those threatened "in writing."
Market Benchmark
Well-negotiated agreements include:
- Violation or Remediation nexus: Each trigger requires either a violation of Environmental Law or a requirement for "material Remediation" under Environmental Law — mere presence without a legal consequence is insufficient.
- Actual loss requirement: Losses must be "actually imposed upon or incurred by or asserted against" Indemnified Parties.
- Indemnified Party misconduct carve-out: "unless, and to the extent, [the triggering events] are caused by gross negligence, willful misconduct or illegal acts of any Indemnified Party." This is essential — without it, a lender who causes environmental harm post-foreclosure could claim indemnification from the former borrower.
- Written threat limitation: "threatened" Releases and "threatened" non-compliance require written threats — not oral or speculative.
- Personal injury/property damage nexus: Claims for personal injury, wrongful death, or property damage are indemnified "solely to the extent caused by" the presence or Release of Hazardous Substances at or from the property — a meaningful causal limitation.
- Misrepresentation trigger: Limited to "material misrepresentation," "material inaccuracy," and "material breach" — not any inaccuracy.
5. Temporal Limitation / Cut-Off Date
Lender's Desired Position
No temporal limitation on indemnification — Indemnitor liable for all environmental conditions regardless of when they arise.
Borrower's Desired Position
Indemnification should not apply to events or conditions that first arise after a "cut-off date," typically defined as the date Borrower loses control of the property (e.g., foreclosure, deed-in-lieu, or appointment of a receiver) or the date the Loan is repaid. Post-closing environmental conditions caused by the lender or its successors should not be the indemnitor's responsibility.
Market Benchmark
Well-negotiated agreements include a "Cut-Off Date" provision:
- "The indemnity shall not apply to any Losses, costs of Remediation or other liabilities with respect to any event or condition that first arises on or after the Cut-Off Date."
- The Cut-Off Date is typically cross-referenced to the definition in the Recourse Guaranty for consistency across the loan documents.
- This is a critical borrower protection — without it, an indemnitor could be liable for environmental contamination caused by a lender's receiver or a purchaser at foreclosure sale.
6. Definition of "Losses"
Lender's Desired Position
Broadly defined to include all damages of any kind, including consequential, special, and punitive damages, without any reasonableness qualifiers on fees and expenses.
Borrower's Desired Position
Losses should: (a) be limited to "actual, out-of-pocket" losses; (b) exclude consequential, special, and punitive damages (or limit them to amounts "actually incurred" by Indemnitee from third-party awards); (c) require all professional fees to be "reasonable"; and (d) require all investigation costs to be "reasonable."
Market Benchmark
Well-negotiated agreements define Losses as:
- Actual, out-of-pocket: "actual, out-of-pocket losses, damages..."
- Consequential/special/punitive damages: "excluding consequential, special and punitive damages (except to the extent actually incurred by Indemnitee)" — this formulation excludes speculative consequential damages sought by Indemnitor but preserves Lender's right to recover if a third party successfully obtains such damages against Lender.
- Reasonable fees: All professional fees qualified as "reasonable" — "reasonable attorneys' fees, reasonable engineers' fees, reasonable environmental consultants' fees, and reasonable investigation costs."
- Diminution in value: Typically included in the definition of Losses — borrowers should be aware this can be a significant exposure.
7. Definition of "Indemnified Parties"
Lender's Desired Position
Broadly defined to include Lender and all affiliates, subsidiaries, participants, officers, directors, agents, employees, successors, and assigns without limitation.
Borrower's Desired Position
Limited to persons with a direct connection to the Loan, excluding third-party purchasers of the property from Lender post-foreclosure.
Market Benchmark
Well-negotiated agreements include:
- Standard broad definition covering Lender, subsidiaries, affiliates, participants, officers, directors, members, managers, partners, agents, employees, trustees, receivers, executors, administrators, and their heirs, successors, and assigns.
- Critical limitation: "solely with respect to the Loan (as opposed to a third party successor or assign that purchases any Individual Property from an Indemnified Party)." This prevents a foreclosure purchaser from stepping into the Indemnified Party's shoes and asserting environmental claims against the indemnitor.
8. Duty to Defend — Control of Litigation
Lender's Desired Position
Indemnified Party has absolute right to select counsel, control litigation strategy, and settle claims, all at Indemnitor's expense with no limitations.
Borrower's Desired Position
Indemnitor should have the primary right to defend claims using counsel of its choosing (subject to Indemnitee's reasonable approval), with Indemnitor's counsel controlling litigation unless there is a divergence of interests. Any settlement requires Indemnitor's consent. Indemnitor should not be responsible for duplicative counsel fees absent a conflict.
Market Benchmark
Well-negotiated agreements include a balanced framework:
- Default — Indemnitor defends: Upon Indemnified Party's request, Indemnitor defends using attorneys "reasonably approved" by Indemnified Parties (approval not to be unreasonably withheld, conditioned, or delayed).
- Indemnified Party's override: Any Indemnified Party may engage its own attorneys and control resolution of claims in its "sole and absolute discretion."
- Settlement protection: "No compromise or settlement shall be entered without Indemnitor's consent, which consent shall not be unreasonably withheld, conditioned or delayed."
- Cost allocation: Other than in respect of a "divergence of interests" between Indemnitor and Indemnitee, Indemnitor is only responsible for costs of its own counsel — not duplicative fees for Indemnitee's separately retained counsel. When a divergence exists, Indemnitee's separate counsel fees are recoverable.
- Payment timing: Reasonable fees and actual out-of-pocket disbursements payable within ten (10) Business Days after written demand.
9. Survival / Sunset Provision
Lender's Desired Position
Obligations survive indefinitely — no sunset, no termination mechanism, no conditions for release.
Borrower's Desired Position
Obligations should terminate on a date certain after repayment of the Loan or after Lender obtains title to the property, provided an updated environmental report shows no new or unresolved conditions.
Market Benchmark
This is one of the most heavily negotiated provisions. Well-negotiated agreements include:
- Indefinite survival as baseline: Obligations "fully survive indefinitely notwithstanding any termination, satisfaction, assignment, entry of a judgment of foreclosure, exercise of any power of sale, or delivery of a deed in lieu of foreclosure."
- Sunset mechanism: Obligations terminate on the date (the "Sunset Date") that is three (3) years following: (a) repayment of the Loan in full; or (b) Lender obtaining title to and control of the property pursuant to foreclosure, deed-in-lieu, or pledge disposition.
- Conditions to sunset (all must be satisfied):
- (i) Indemnitee receives, at Indemnitor's expense, an Updated Environmental Report (dated within 60 days of repayment or transfer) showing no "recognized environmental conditions" or significant non-compliance not previously disclosed, or that such conditions have been addressed to Indemnitee's "reasonable satisfaction" (which may include Remediation);
- (ii) Indemnitor has paid all reasonable out-of-pocket costs and expenses incurred by Indemnitee in connection with the Updated Report; and
- (iii) Prior to the Sunset Date, no written notice of any claim has been delivered to Indemnitor (if a claim notice is delivered, rights survive until full and final resolution and payment).
- Key negotiation point: The sunset period (3 years is borrower-favorable; lenders often push for 5-6 years or no sunset). The "reasonable satisfaction" standard for the Updated Report (versus "sole discretion") is also critical.
10. Unimpaired Liability / Anti-Impairment
Lender's Desired Position
Indemnitor's liability is not limited or impaired by any modification of loan documents, extensions, sales of property, exculpatory provisions, release of security, or any other event, with or without notice or consideration.
Borrower's Desired Position
While broad anti-impairment language is standard, Indemnitor should not be bound by any modification or amendment that increases Indemnitor's obligations or decreases Indemnitor's rights unless Indemnitor has agreed to and signed such modification.
Market Benchmark
Well-negotiated agreements include broad anti-impairment language covering: (i) extensions of time; (ii) sales/transfers; (iii) exculpatory provisions; (iv) accuracy of representations; (v) release of Indemnitor by operation of law; (vi) release/substitution of security; and (vii) failure to record/perfect security interests.
Critical borrower protection: "Indemnitor shall not be bound by any modification or amendment to any Loan Document that would increase Indemnitor's obligations or decrease its rights unless Indemnitor has agreed to such modifications or amendments and signed such modification or amendment." Without this, a lender could theoretically modify the loan agreement to expand the environmental indemnity without the indemnitor's consent.
11. Enforcement Provisions
Lender's Desired Position
Indemnified Parties may enforce obligations without first resorting to security, foreclosing, or having an Event of Default occur. The agreement is not subject to non-recourse limitations. Indemnitor is fully and personally liable without limitation.
Borrower's Desired Position
While direct enforcement rights are generally accepted, Borrower should confirm that: (a) Lender retains all other remedies (not an election of remedies); (b) the agreement is not automatically treated as additional collateral (which could affect priority or create lien issues); and (c) the agreement's characterization as "not collateral" is the default.
Market Benchmark
Well-negotiated agreements provide:
- Indemnified Parties may enforce "without first resorting to or exhausting any security or collateral" and "without first having recourse to" the loan documents or property.
- "This Agreement is not collateral or security for the Debt, unless Indemnitee expressly elects in writing to make this Agreement additional collateral or security" — this preserves Lender's option while making non-collateral status the default.
- "It is not necessary for an Event of Default to have occurred" — the environmental indemnity stands independent of loan default status.
- Obligations are "exceptions to any non-recourse or exculpation provision" — full personal liability, "not limited to the original or amortized principal balance of the Loan or the value of the Properties."
12. Interest on Unpaid Amounts
Lender's Desired Position
Immediate accrual of interest at the Default Rate upon demand, with no grace period.
Borrower's Desired Position
Interest should accrue only after a reasonable grace period following demand, capped at the lesser of the Default Rate or the maximum rate permitted by law, and subject to any usury savings provisions in the loan documents.
Market Benchmark
Well-negotiated agreements provide:
- Amounts become due on written demand.
- Interest accrues only if not paid within thirty (30) days of demand.
- Rate: lesser of (a) the Default Rate or (b) the maximum legal rate.
- Subject to usury savings provisions in the Note.
13. Waivers
Lender's Desired Position
Comprehensive waivers of all suretyship defenses, marshaling rights, counterclaim rights, notice requirements, homestead exemptions, statutes of limitations, and all rights accorded to indemnitors/guarantors under applicable law.
Borrower's Desired Position
Accept standard waivers but preserve: (a) subrogation rights (postponed, not waived, until loan repayment); (b) mandatory/compulsory counterclaim rights; and (c) any defenses based on Indemnified Party misconduct.
Market Benchmark
Well-negotiated agreements include:
- Marshaling waiver: Standard.
- Suretyship defense waiver: Broad waiver of "all rights and remedies accorded by applicable law to indemnitors or guarantors."
- Subrogation preservation: "except any rights of subrogation which Indemnitor may have" — subrogation rights are preserved but postponed until loan repayment (not permanently waived).
- Counterclaim limitation: Waiver of counterclaims "other than a mandatory or compulsory counterclaim" — this preserves counterclaims that would be waived if not asserted in the pending action.
- Jury trial waiver: Mutual waiver by both Indemnitor and Indemnitee.
- California-specific waivers: If California property is involved, specific waivers of Civil Code Sections 2787-2855, 2899, 3433, and Code of Civil Procedure Sections 580a, 580b, 580d, and 726 (anti-deficiency and one-action rule protections).
14. Subrogation
Lender's Desired Position
Complete waiver of all subrogation, contribution, and reimbursement rights during and after the loan term, including waiver of all rights under applicable suretyship statutes.
Borrower's Desired Position
Preserve the right to pursue third parties responsible for environmental contamination. Waive subrogation and contribution rights against Borrower only during the loan term, with full restoration upon repayment.
Market Benchmark
Well-negotiated agreements provide:
- Affirmative obligation: Indemnitor must take "reasonable actions, including institution of legal action against third parties," to obtain reimbursement from responsible parties. Indemnified Parties are subrogated to Indemnitor's rights in such claims.
- Waiver during loan term: Indemnitor "unconditionally and irrevocably waives" rights of subrogation, contribution, and reimbursement against Borrower until full repayment of the Debt (and any mezzanine loan, if applicable).
- Restoration post-repayment: Waiver expires upon full repayment — critical for guarantors who pay environmental claims and want to pursue the responsible party.
- California-specific: If applicable, specific waivers of Civil Code Section 2822(a) (right to reduce obligations by partial payments) and election-of-remedies defenses under Section 580d.
15. Exculpation of Individuals
Lender's Desired Position
No exculpation — all principals, officers, directors, members, and affiliates of Indemnitor are personally liable.
Borrower's Desired Position
Broad exculpation of all individuals and entities other than the named Indemnitor and any person who has explicitly assumed liability in writing.
Market Benchmark
Well-negotiated agreements include:
- "No principal, director, officer, employee, advisor, beneficiary, shareholder, partner, manager, member, trustee, fiduciary, agent or Affiliate of Indemnitor (other than Borrower) shall have any personal liability for the performance or discharge of any covenants, obligations or undertakings of Indemnitor under this Agreement."
- Exception: Persons who have "explicitly assumed such liability in writing" (e.g., replacement guarantors under the loan agreement).
- Scope: Should also carve out any other person who becomes a guarantor or indemnitor under the Loan Documents, but only "in respect of their respective obligations" under their own guaranty/indemnity.
16. Costs and Expenses
Lender's Desired Position
Indemnitor pays all costs and expenses incurred by Indemnitee, including all legal fees (internal and external), without limitation.
Borrower's Desired Position
Costs limited to "reasonable" legal fees and "actual out-of-pocket" disbursements, with an explicit exclusion of in-house staff expenses.
Market Benchmark
Well-negotiated agreements provide:
- Costs include "reasonable legal fees and actual out-of-pocket disbursements."
- In-house exclusion: "shall exclude the reimbursements for the expenses of the in-house staff" — this prevents Lender from allocating internal overhead costs to the Indemnitor, which is a meaningful cost control.
17. Notice of Legal Actions
Lender's Desired Position
Borrower must immediately notify Lender of any environmental notice, communication, or legal action from any source. No reciprocal obligation on Lender.
Borrower's Desired Position
Mutual notice obligations (both parties must notify each other). Notice limited to material matters. Reasonable time periods for delivery. Triggered only by written notices from third parties or actual knowledge.
Market Benchmark
Well-negotiated agreements include:
- Mutual obligation: "Each party hereto shall give written notice to the other party" — not just Indemnitor.
- Scope: (i) Written notices from any Governmental Authority or other source regarding Hazardous Substances constituting "material non-compliance" or "violation of Environmental Law" or "reasonably anticipated to require Remediation"; and (ii) any legal action with potential Indemnitor liability.
- Timing: Ten (10) Business Days for environmental notices; five (5) Business Days for legal actions (from actual knowledge).
- Knowledge trigger: Legal action notice triggered by "actual knowledge" — not constructive knowledge.
18. Governing Law / Dispute Resolution
Lender's Desired Position
New York governing law (borrower-protective state law provisions do not apply). Broad jurisdiction and venue provisions. Jury trial waiver. Optional arbitration at Lender's sole election.
Borrower's Desired Position
If New York law governs, ensure applicability of NY GOL §§ 5-1401 and 5-1402 (permitting NY choice of law and jurisdiction for transactions over $250,000). Mutual jury trial waiver. If arbitration is included, it should be mutual (not unilateral at Lender's election), with balanced arbitrator selection.
Market Benchmark
Well-negotiated agreements include:
- New York governing law: Standard for institutional CRE loans, invoking NY GOL § 5-1401.
- Jurisdiction: Federal or state courts in New York County, with mutual waiver of venue/forum non conveniens objections under NY GOL § 5-1402.
- Process agent: Indemnitor designates a New York agent for service of process (typically a registered agent service), with obligation to maintain and notify Lender of changes.
- Jury trial waiver: Mutual.
- Arbitration (if included): Optional ICC arbitration at Lender's election. Three-arbitrator panel (each party nominates one; the two nominees select a presiding arbitrator). Seated in New York. English language. Final and binding award enforceable in any court of competent jurisdiction.
- Key negotiation point: If arbitration is lender-elective only, borrower should negotiate for mutual election rights. Also consider whether arbitration is truly preferable — it can be more expensive and less predictable than NY commercial court litigation.
Additional Provisions — Boilerplate with Negotiation Implications
No Oral Modification
Standard — all modifications must be in writing signed by the party against whom enforcement is sought. Non-controversial but important to confirm.
Severability
Standard — if any provision is held invalid, the remainder of the agreement survives. Non-controversial.
Joint and Several Liability
Standard where multiple indemnitors exist. Borrowers with multiple entities should consider whether joint and several is appropriate or whether liability should be allocated by property.
Successors and Assigns
Standard — obligations bind successors and assigns of Indemnitor, but Indemnitor may not assign obligations without Lender's written consent. Indemnitee's rights inure to its permitted successors and assigns. Confirm that "permitted" successors and assigns language is consistent with the Loan Agreement's transfer provisions.
Release of Liability
Standard — release of one co-indemnitor does not release others. Important where multiple guarantors/indemnitors exist.
Operating Lessee Provisions
In structures involving an operating lessee (common in hotel and hospitality transactions), confirm that: (a) "knowledge" of Borrower includes knowledge of Operating Lessee; (b) Operating Lessee's obligations mirror Borrower's; (c) Operating Lessee must provide deliverables to Lender; and (d) Operating Lessee acknowledges all applicable provisions.
Negotiation Priority Matrix
| Priority | Provision | Impact |
|---|
| Critical | Survival / Sunset | Determines duration of exposure — difference between indefinite liability and a defined termination |
| Critical | Cut-Off Date | Protects against post-transfer environmental events |
| Critical | Indemnified Party Misconduct Carve-Out | Prevents lender from claiming indemnity for its own environmental harm |
| Critical | Definition of Losses | Consequential/punitive damage exclusions can dramatically limit exposure |
| High | Knowledge Qualifiers (Reps) | Protects against unknown pre-existing conditions |
| High | Materiality Qualifiers (Covenants) | Prevents technical violations from triggering full indemnity |
| High | Duty to Defend Cost Allocation | Controls litigation expense exposure |
| High | Anti-Impairment Consent Requirement | Prevents unilateral expansion of obligations |
| Medium | Environmental Assessment Two-Step | Controls Lender's ability to enter property and incur costs |
| Medium | Subrogation Preservation | Preserves right to pursue responsible third parties |
| Medium | Exculpation of Individuals | Shields principals and affiliates |
| Medium | In-House Cost Exclusion | Prevents overhead allocation |
| Lower | Interest Grace Period | 30-day cure period before default interest |
| Lower | Mutual Notice Obligations | Ensures Lender must also provide notice of claims |
Review Checklist
When reviewing an environmental indemnity agreement, confirm:
