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Use when analyzing or manipulating the antecedent motivational variables that alter the value of consequences and the frequency of behavior — covers EOs, AOs, unconditioned and conditioned MOs, and clinical applications.
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Based on SOC occupation classification
Use when conducting systematic literature reviews of behavior analytic research, building search strategies, evaluating single-subject study quality, and synthesizing findings across ABA studies.
Use when administering, scoring, or interpreting the ABLLS-R — covers all 25 skill areas, 544 tasks, task-analyzed scoring, and linkage to individualized program development.
Use when writing behavior analytic manuscripts for journal publication, including APA formatting, JABA-style structure, precise behavioral language, and reporting single-subject research results.
Use when administering, scoring, or interpreting the AFLS — covers all six modules, functional living skill assessment across the lifespan, scoring procedures, and treatment goal linkage for adolescents and adults.
Use when designing proactive strategies to prevent problem behavior by modifying environmental events that precede behavior, including NCR, high-p sequences, visual supports, and demand fading.
Use when defining target behaviors operationally, selecting appropriate measurement procedures, and designing data collection systems for behavior analytic assessment and intervention.
| name | motivating-operations |
| description | Use when analyzing or manipulating the antecedent motivational variables that alter the value of consequences and the frequency of behavior — covers EOs, AOs, unconditioned and conditioned MOs, and clinical applications. |
Jack Michael (1982, 1993, 2000) introduced the concept of motivating operations (MOs) to describe environmental variables that alter two things simultaneously:
These two effects are the defining features. An MO is not simply a "setting event" or a vague contextual variable — it has specific, testable effects on reinforcer value and behavior frequency.
Establishing operation (EO): Increases the reinforcing or punishing effectiveness of a stimulus and increases the frequency of behavior previously reinforced by that stimulus.
Abolishing operation (AO): Decreases the reinforcing or punishing effectiveness of a stimulus and decreases the frequency of behavior previously reinforced by that stimulus.
UMOs have value-altering and behavior-altering effects without prior learning. They are products of evolutionary history.
| UMO | Value-Altering Effect | Behavior-Altering Effect |
|---|---|---|
| Food deprivation | Increases value of food as reinforcer | Increases food-seeking behavior |
| Food satiation | Decreases value of food | Decreases food-seeking behavior |
| Water deprivation | Increases value of water | Increases water-seeking behavior |
| Sleep deprivation | Increases value of rest/sleep | Increases rest-seeking behavior |
| Activity deprivation | Increases value of physical activity | Increases activity-seeking behavior |
| Aversive stimulation (pain, extreme temperature, loud noise) | Increases value of removal of the aversive as reinforcer | Increases escape/avoidance behavior |
Clinical relevance: A child who has had unlimited access to iPad (satiation/AO) will not work for iPad access in a therapy session. A child who has been deprived of social attention may find attention more reinforcing, increasing attention-seeking behavior including problem behavior maintained by attention.
CMOs acquire their value-altering and behavior-altering effects through learning. Laraway et al. (2003) described three subtypes:
A stimulus that has been paired with a UMO acquires the same MO effects. The CMO-S is a conditioned establishing or abolishing operation that functions as a surrogate for the UMO.
A stimulus that signals the onset of a worsening condition becomes an EO for behavior that removes or avoids that stimulus. The stimulus itself becomes aversive because it signals something worse.
A stimulus that makes a particular reinforcer available — not by changing its value, but by creating a condition in which a specific behavior is required to access the reinforcer.
This is a frequent source of confusion. The distinction is critical:
| Feature | Motivating Operation (MO) | Discriminative Stimulus (SD) |
|---|---|---|
| Primary effect | Alters the value of a consequence | Signals the availability of a consequence |
| Mechanism | Changes reinforcer/punisher effectiveness | Evokes behavior because it was correlated with reinforcement |
| Value alteration | Yes — changes how reinforcing/punishing a stimulus is | No — does not change the value of the consequence |
| Example | Deprivation makes food more valuable | The restaurant sign signals food is available |
A single stimulus can have both MO and SD properties. A teacher presenting a demand both signals that compliance will be reinforced (SD) and may establish escape as a reinforcer (EO) if the demand is aversive.
Mand training requires an EO in place for the target reinforcer. Without an EO, there is no motivation to mand.
NCR provides the reinforcer on a fixed-time schedule independent of behavior. By providing free access to the reinforcer, NCR functions as an abolishing operation — it reduces the value of the reinforcer and thereby reduces the problem behavior maintained by that reinforcer.
NCR is effective precisely because of its AO function. It "uses up" the motivation that drives the problem behavior.
When task demands function as aversive stimulation (establishing escape as a reinforcer), gradually increasing demands from low to high density allows the individual to contact reinforcement for compliance at low demand levels, reducing the overall aversive value of the instructional context.
Ensuring relative deprivation of session reinforcers increases their effectiveness. However:
Behavior is often influenced by both MOs and SDs simultaneously. A child may mand for "cookie" because they are hungry (EO) and because they see cookies on the counter (SD). Effective clinical programming considers both sources of control and teaches behavior under appropriate motivational and discriminative conditions.
